VOLUME IV NUMBER 36University RecordFRIDAY, DECEMBER 8, 1899THE EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCES OF THE HIGHSCHOOLS AND ACADEMIESAffiliated and Co-operating with the University of Chicago.THE AUTUMN MEETING, 1899.1. AN historical statement.When, in the fall of 1892, the University ofChicago opened its doors to students, the University and its natural constituency, the secondary schools of Chicago, northern Illinois, andthe states lying adjacent to this territory, werepractically strangers to one another. On the onehand, the attitude of the University toward theschools, its admission, requirements, its methodsof administering these, and its policy with regardto the numerous problems which must of necessity arise in the adjustment of the relations thatwere to exist between school and college, all thesethe University, in its new field had yet to workout, and the schools had yet to learn. On theother hand, the schools themselves, with theircurricula, their equipments, their faculties, theirspirit, were comparatively unknown to the University.Recognizing the immense importance of thesecondary schools to its own success, as well asits own duty to all educational institutions, theUniversity at once took the initiative in entering into vital and helpful relations with the secondary schools. It realized that it could not decideall the questions which arose in connection withsecondary education purely from its own point ofview, but must confer freely and on equal footingwith the leaders and teachers in the schools fromwhich its junior students must come.Accordingly, on November 5, 1892, in thesecond month of the University's public career,was held "The First Autumn Conference of University and Preparatory School Teachers," as itwas at that time called. At this conference, tothe invitation to which there was a generousresponse from principals and teachers, there weretwo public sessions, morning and afternoon, atwhich discussion, necessarily informal, was hadof topics relating largely to the requirements foradmission to the University. This subject hasengaged the best thoughts and most careful andpatient studies of the faculty of the University eversince ; but in any account of the solution of thisimportant problem the generous cooperation andassistance that have come from the secondaryschools should not pass unmentioned.So successful was the first conference that, atthe request of the schools, a second conferencewas appointed for the following April ; and fromthis time on these conferences have been an214 UNIVERSITY RECORDimportant feature of the spring and fall, evergrowing in interest and value to all who havepartaken in them. At the sixth conference, inNovember 1895, two important innovations wereintroduced : (1) A Friday afternoon and evening session, whereas before the sessions hadbeen confined to Saturday; (2) a series ofdepartmental conferences on Saturday afternoon,which supplemented the general session formerlyheld at that time. The value of these more technical departmental conferences was at onceapparent, and they have been a prominent feature ever since. Most helpful discussions ofmany vital and practical topics, arising out ofactual class rooms, each peculiar to each depart- ,ment, have been had by those especially interested in the several departments.Following are some of the more importantquestions which have been discussed in the general sessions of the conferences: The Aim andScope of Elementary Biology in the PreparatorySchool (1894) ; History in the Preparatory School(1894); Some Exaggerations of the New Education (1894) ; The Higher Training of Teachers inEngland, France, and Germany (1894) ; TheFuture of the High School (1895) ; Addresses onthe Subject of Pedagogy (1895); The TrueObject of an Educational System from anEconomic Point of View (1896) ; The Aim andClaims of History in the Secondary Schools(1896) ; Twenty Years of Educational Agitations :its effects upon the Public High School (1897);The Relation of the Secondary School to theStudent's Choice of an Occupation (1897) ; ThePsychology of Adolescence (1898) ; The Fitnessof Economics to Meet the Conditions of Adolescence (1898) ; The Fitness of Science to Meetthe Conditions of Adolescence (1898) ; Preparation for Citizenship, or the School and the Citizen(1898); The Relation of Higher Education toSuccess in Business Life (1899).The spring general conferences were discontinued in 1899, an(* an executive session of Deansand Principals with the University Board of Affil iations was substituted as an annual event. Another innovation was established in the fall of1898, when, in connection with the conference,the first annual contest in declamation betweenrepresentatives of the Senior classes of the secondary schools was held. This aroused so muchinterest that the contest has been made an annualfeature of the fall conference. As one of thedirect results of the increased knowledge of thesecondary schools gained through these and othermeans, the methods of admission to the University have been materially changed. Nearlyone hundred schools have been approved as furnishing adequate preparation for college, andwith these the University has entered into relations of affiliation or cooperation, as a result ofwhich students are accepted without examinationupon the vouchers, subject by subject, signedby principal and teachers. The original examination system is still maintained for students whocome from other schools. It should be said thatthe character of the work in the secondary schools,judged by the standard of the students who havecome to the University from these schools, hasbeen steadily increasing in excellence.Upon the certificate system students are received from Morgan Park Academy and from thefollowing schools :I. Affiliated schools : Bradley Polytechnic Institute,Culver Military Academy, Frances Shimer Academy, SouthSide Academy, Harvard School, Kenwood Institute, Chicago Manual Training School, Prince ton- Yale School,Rugby School, Wayland Academy, Maynard School, ElginAcademy, Dearborn Seminary.II. Cooperating schools : The following is the list ofcooperating secondary schools :The High Schools of Chicago, viz. : Calumet, Engle-wood, English High and Manual Training, Hyde Park,Jefferson, Lake, Lake View, Marshall, Medill, North Division,Northwest Division, South Chicago, South Division, WestDivision ; other High Schools in Illinois : Aurora (EastSide), Aurora (West Side), Austin, Blue Island, Elgin,Evanston Township, Harvey, Lyons Township, Moline,Oak Park, Ottawa Township, Peoria, Rockford, RockIsland, Springfield, Waukegan, Hinsdale, and Joliet; inCalifornia: San Francisco Girls', and Lowell High Schools;in Colorado : Denver High School ; in Indiana : Fort WayneHigh School, Indianapolis High School, Indianapolis Industrial Training School, Classical School for Girls, Indian-UNIVERSITY RECORD 215apolis, La Porte, Terre Haute, and Richmond High Schools ;in Iowa : Dubuque, Keokuk, Sioux City, and Council BluffsHigh Schools ; in Kansas : Leavenworth and Topeka HighSchools ; in Kentucky : Male High School and Girls'High School, Louisville ; in Michigan : Battle Creek HighSchool ; Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake ; inMinnesota : Duluth, Minneapolis Central, and East SideHigh Schools, and Shattuck School, Faribault ; in Missouri :Hosmer Hall (St. Louis), St. Louis and Kansas City HighSchools ; in Nebraska : Omaha High School ; in Ohio :Cleveland (Central), Columbus, Dayton (Steele), GrandRapids, St. Joseph, Toledo, and Youngstown High Schools ;in Pennsylvania : Pittsburg High School and WesttownBoarding School ; in Wisconsin : Milwaukee (S., E., andW. Side), Racine High Schools.The University has established the followingscholarship privileges in secondary schools :i. One each year to each affiliated school, tobe assigned on recommendation of its Dean, andheld for one year.2. One scholarship to each of the Chicago HighSchools, upon the recommendation of the Principal.3. Twenty-five scholarships to be assigned tothe best candidates recommended by the principals of the cooperating schools outside of Chicago.4. Two scholarships each year, awarded to thesuccessful contestants (young man and youngwoman) in the annual declamation contest.It is understood that these scholarships are allrewards of scholarly merit, and can be held onlyby students who enter the University without conditions, and upon a high record for scholarshipin the preparatory school.11. the executive session of deans andprincipals.The annual meeting of the Affiliated and Cooperating Schools with the Board of Affiliationswas held in Congregation Hall, Friday, November 10, 1899, at 3.00 p. m. There were present ofthe Board of Affiliations : the President, theChairman, the Dean, the Director, Assistant Professor Fellows, Professor Barnes, Drs. Slaught,Hatfield, and Kern, and the representatives of the following schools : Princeton-Yale School,Culver Military Academy, Hinsdale High School,Academy of John B. Stetson University, ElginAcademy, Charleston High School, DearbornSeminary, Frances Shimer Academy, Hyde ParkHigh School, Bradley Institute, La Porte, Ind.,Moline High School, West Aurora High School,Harvard School, Thornton Township High School,Lyons Township High School, Lake View HighSchool, Lake High School, Joliet Township HighSchool, Rock Island High School, North Division High School, Rugby School, Morgan ParkAcademy, Elgin, Harvey, Oak Park, and EastAurora High Schools.The minutes of the meeting of May 6, 1899,were read and approved. Mr. Norton, chairmanof the committee on the question of two standardsin the schools, made an informal report of progress. Remarks were made upon the subject byMessrs. Cooley, Armstrong, Nightingale, Miller,and the chairman. It was voted that the committee be continued, and that a report be rendered at the next meeting in the spring.Dean Miller reported on the subject of thestudents who entered in October, especially thoseupon conditions.A discussion followed upon matters relating tothe certificate system, participated in by DeanMiller, Messrs. Nightingale, Norton, Schobinger,and the chairman.After discussion upon the advisability of offering prizes in other subjects than public speaking,it was voted that such prizes be offered in some ofthe ten required subjects for admission.A committee consisting of Messrs. Westcott,Chase, Schobinger, Armstrong, French, and Miller,was appointed to prepare a programme for thespring Conference. A motion was made that theConference approve of a secondary school programme, to be elective, with the exception of English. It was, on motion, voted that this subjectbe placed upon the programme for the spring Conference. The Conference thereupon adjourned.216 UNIVERSITY RECORDm. the declamation contest.The second annual contest in declamationbetween the representatives of Affiliated andCooperating Schools was held Friday evening,November 10, at 7.30 p. m., in Kent Theater.The following schools sent representatives tothis contest :Joliet High School, Elgin High School, Waukegan HighSchool, West Division High School, Harvey High School,Milwaukee High School (west side), Milwaukee High School(east side), Lake View High School, East Aurora HighSchool, Rockford High School, West Aurora High School,West Division High School, Chicago Manual TrainingSchool, South Division High School, Bradley PolytechnicInstitute, Kansas City High School, Lake High School,Hyde Park High School, Englewood High School, Princeton-Yale School, Morgan Park Academy, John Marshall HighSchool.The following contestants were selected fromthis number by a committee on selection for thethe evening program :Jessie Daniels, Milwaukee High School (east side) ; LeahA. Hare, Rockford High School ; Florence Lamburne, SouthDivision High School ; William J. Leach, Bradley Polytechnic Institute; Ray M. Merrill, Kansas City High School;Alfred Millard, West Aurora High School ; James Mines,Hyde Park High School; Chester E.. Robertson, SouthDivision High School : Barbara Speer, Englewood HighSchool ; Viola Wurzburg, Hyde Park High School.The judges awarded the prize scholarships to :Leah A. Hare, subject: "The Ringing up ofthe Curtain."William J. Leach, subject : "A Life Struggle."iv. the general conference.The meeting of Saturday, November 11, wasgiven up to a discussion of the topic : The Relation of Higher Education to Success inBusiness Life.Professor A. C. Miller, of the University, spokeas follows :The American character, it has often beennoted, is a singular compound of idealism andpracticality. With an unselfish devotion to someof the loftiest of human interests, it unites thehabit of asking concerning the practical worth of things. On this two-fold basis we have, as anation, been working out our theory of successand of life. Seldom purely disinterested, andnever purely sordid, we nevertheless always askof institutions and ideas what useful service theycan render in the daily business of life. Thishabit of character, which has shaped our nationalattitude toward nearly all other things, has alsogoverned our view of the legitimate function ofthe higher education. The test of utility hasconstantly been applied to our universities andcolleges, even by those who admit that the choicest fruits of the higher education are to be lookedfor in the fullness and perfection of individualand collective life. Truth for truth's sake, knowledge as an end in itself, will never be accepted asan adequate justification of the millions annuallydedicated to the service of the higher education,except by a small minority. The majority asksfor a more tangible, a more material, a morepersonal equivalent. What can the college doto better a boy's chances in the struggles of life, isthe question asked with impatient insistence bythe hesitating parent. And it is well that thisquestion is asked. I do not agree with those whofear that the colleges will be diverted from theirproper course by listening to this appeal. Alltrue education, I hold, is practical, and results inincreased effectiveness for work as well as forlife. At the same time, however, I hasten to statemy belief that all kinds of college training arenot of equal service in this direction.The phrase " college education " is vague — toovague to describe the matter for discussion of ameeting like the present. It has lost the definite-ness of meaning possessed fifty, or even twenty,years ago. The modern university stands committed to no single type of culture ; it includeswithin itself a variety of disciplines undertakenwith different intentions. Between a college ofliberal arts and a college of practical arts, likemechanics or electricity, there are such widedifferences of aim, and even of methods, that theycannot be subsumed under the same head in dis-discussing the advantages of college educationand disposed of in the same judgment. Theterms of the equation in the case of each aresomewhat different ; they each suppose a differentmental attitude on the part of both instructor andstudent ; the atmosphere in which the oneflourishes may not be congenial to the other.The one is professedly a special preparation for aUNIVERSITY RECORD 217definite industrial service ; the other proposesto itself no definite career, unless it be that ofright thinking, right living, right enthusiasms ;its aim is the emancipation of the human mind.Should it be occasion for surprise, therefore, ifthese two types of education be found to meetthe test of practicality in different degrees ? Thatthe technical college needs no defense on thisscore is amply evident from the rapid increase inboth demand for and supply of this sort of training. That there is, however, a serious doubt inthe popular mind regarding the practical value ofthe classical, literary, or humanistic training ismanifest from the frequency with which the question is discussed in the press and from the platform. It is still the favorite theme at collegefestivals. The successful college graduate covetsthe opportunity to tell how much of his successhe owes to alma mater. Mr. Depew a few yearsago declared before this University, assembledin convocation, that there were no self-mademen. The difference between college-mademen and others was the difference between well-made men and half or ill-made men. Successfulbusiness men, on the other hand, who have nothad a college training, are frequently heard todeclare against it. Mr. Carnegie, a few years ago,said he did not know any successful business menwho were college graduates. But that does notsettle the question, nor do I think the question isone that ever will be settled by assertion or debate.It would hardly have been worth while to call aconference to discuss this question, therefore,were there not another aspect of the case, whichseems to need emphazing at this time ; and Ihave alluded to the question in its general formonly so far as seemed necessary to prepare theway for my main thought. Whatever may be ourindividual views regarding the merits of a classicalor liberal education, we must not be indifferentto the existence in the community of a large classthat is not appealed to by it. This class includesthe merchants, manufacturers, bankers, and manyothers who expect their sons to follow in theirfootsteps. Many of this class are already sendingtheir sons to college. It is one of the mostwholesome tendencies of the time that the percentage of young men in attendance at the colleges, who are looking forward to a life inbusiness, should be increasing so noticeably. Butthe numbers could be greatly increased if thecolleges of the country offered a more substantial substitute for the undoubted loss of experiencethat four years of college life entail. This is thepoint. College life exacts a costly sacrifice oftime and opportunity of the young man contemplating a business career. Does it compensatehim with a practical equivalent ? It is not deniedthat college life makes a better man of a boy.But this is not enough. It should also help tofit him for a career. It does this in certain linesalready, but it does not go far enough. It shouldconsider the needs of the business, as well as ofthe professional career. While making a man itshould also try to make a merchant. Thus runsthe thought of many who now turn aside whenthey have arrived at the college entrance.The question suggested to the practical educator by all this is, should not the colleges do something more than they have done thus far to attachthis new and powerful constituency ? It is idleto say they do as things are : the average mancannot be persuaded of it, and I beg to remindyou that it is the average man to whom educationin an American community must always addressits loudest call. I have no unalterable convictionon the point, but I strongly incline to the opinion of those who doubt and even deny that theordinary college curriculum is of momentous useto the man who is looking, first and foremost, forsuccess in business. Inquiry and observationhave compelled me to this conclusion, howeverreluctantly. I no longer believe as fully as I oncedid that the four years' study of Greek, Latin,Mathematics, and Philosophy are material aids tosuccess in the market place, in the manager'soffice, or the director's room. These studies domuch, no doubt, to sharpen the analytical and reflective faculties, and, so far, are useful. Butthey cannot do as much by a tithe to cultivatethe habits of observation and of appreciation ofdetails, the sense of importance, or the exerciseof judgment, as four years in the formative period of youth given to incessant contact with thefierce and uncompromising realities of existence*College life in the finest of conditions is a sheltered existence ; it is not its principal purpose todevelop those habits or harden those fiberswhich are most prized in the pursuit of gain.Let me not be misunderstood. I prize just thissort of culture against which I seem to be arguing, as one of the most precious possessions inlife ; but I recognize that its eternal claims to ourgrateful reverence are derived from ends and218 UNIVERSITY RECORDideals not accepted as tests of business fitness.We are seeking the relation of college educationto success in business, and we do not solve thatproblem by insisting that life is more than livelihood, that the man should be more than his calling. When all this is admitted the problem isstill upon us.Does it lie within the province, and is it withinthe competence of the college to organize acourse of instruction that shall bear much thesame relation to business as existing courses *inlaw, medicine, and technology do to their severalprofessions ? Perhaps the analogy would bemore accurately stated if the proposed course incommerce were likened to the pre-medical andpre-legal courses that have been established insome universities. For these courses are offsprings of the same necessity that is now bespeaking our friendly offices for its last-born. Thesecourses aim at a considerable degree of specialpreparation, without sacrificing anything of whatis cherished as essential in all college educationworthy of the name — the quickening of the intellectual and spiritual insight of the student andthe widening and elevation of his sympathies.Thus formulated the question touching the province and competence of the university wouldseem to admit of but one answer. Several leading American universites have already given theiranswer in the most authoritative and concretemanner. Some years ago the University ofPennsylvania established, with the aid of a giftfrom a citizen of Philadelphia, the WhartonSchool of Finance and Economy, a school ofcollegiate rank. Two years ago the University ofCalifornia organized a College of Commerce ona very comprehensive basis. About the sametime the University of Chicago, after a most thorough and prolonged consideration of the case organized a College of Commerce and Politics "inresponse to the growing demand for a course ofuniversity instruction that should be adapted tothe needs of students who desire to make theiruniversity work more directly introductory to acareer in business, law, diplomacy, administration,journalism, etc., than is done by the existingColleges of Arts, Literature, and Science." Columbia University, with the aid of a grant fromthe Chamber of Commerce, of the State of NewYork, is just about to organize a curriculumwhich, in the language of President Low, whoseopinion is entitled to the greatest respect on this question, because of his unusual experience asmerchant, statesman, administrator, and educator," comprises fundamental courses in the principlesgoverning business, combined with detailedcourses in practice" — a curriculum, moreover,which the special committee of the Chamber ofCommerce describes as "a satisfactory course ofinstruction for those desiring to equip themselvesin the most complete manner for a commercialcareer." It is reported that other university faculties in this country are considering undertakings of similar scope. Time does not suffice tomake more than the merest reference in passingto the higher commercial instruction in Europe.Leipsic led the way in 1852 by the establishmentof her great and justly celebrated Institute ofCommerce. This supplied a model that has sincebeen widely imitated elsewhere in Germany,France, and Belgium. It has been stated recentlyon the highest authority that in these countries" commercial opinion is almost (though notquite) unanimous in setting a high value on special training," and that, "in consequence, publicauthorities of all kinds have been at great troubleand expense to provide it." England is naturallyconservative in this matter ; all of her college traditions dispose her to take a hostile view. Butthere are abundant indications that enlightened,;,commercial opinion there is being stirred to arealization of the necessities of the case. Thelegend "made in Germany," encountered everywhere and on everything, seems to be workingthis transformation. The merchant theorists ofGermany are today dreaded when a generationago they were ignored. Her school-trained manufacturers have shown the greatest aptitude andreadiness of resource in meeting the complex requirements of the modern world-commerce. Itis not surprising to learn, therefore, that the recently established London School of Economicand Political Science should have embodiedamong its curricula a higher commercial coursewhich is described, if you will permit me, as asystem of higher education which stands in thesame relation to the life and calling of the manufacturer, the merchant, and other men of business, as the medical schools of the universitiesto that of the doctor — a system, that is, whichprovides a scientific training in the structure andorganization of modern industry and commerce,and the general causes and criteria of prosperity,as they are illustrated or explained in the policyUNIVERSITY RECORD 219and the experience of the British Empire andforeign countries.Can it then be doubted that the higher education, if conceived with these purposes, is, or maybecome a momentous factor in the prosperity ofnations and in the success of individuals ? Thetestimony of experience and of competentopinion as thus far expressed seem to give but oneanswer. Probabilities are always a rational basisof action in education as in the other concernsof life, and were the friends of the higher commercial education disposed to rest content withan appeal tb the influence of precedent, example,opinion and tendency, they might accept thequestion whether as settled, and turn at once tothe questions when and how the schools and colleges might best proceed in the development ofthis new side of education. But the history ofeducational movements in this country shows thatthe gospel of conversion cannot be preached toostrenuously, or too insistently, at the outset of animpending change. Time and energy are gainedin the end. Once bring the dissenting elementsto the acceptance of the new point of view, theremaining questions will speedily find their solution in due course.Now what is the basis of faith in the practicalvalue of higher commercial education ? Precisely the same as that in any other kind of special training. Certainly not the expectation thatthe school or college of commerce can make ofany or every young man a competent or successful merchant. No educational institution canundertake to guarantee success in any line ofactivity. The justification of schools of law,medicine, or engineering, is not that they invariably make successful lawyers, physicians, orengineers. We all know men who have hadexceptional educational opportunities, and yethave failed. But what does this mean ? Simplythis, that other things besides knowledge andtraining enter into the essentials of success.There are other men whose education did notextend beyond the three R's, whose success isstartling. These are men possessed of theinstinct of business as other men have the instinct of workmanship, or the instinct of leadership. They succeed by virtue of their nativeendowments, because it is difficult for them notto. And were the common run of young men ofthis sort, there would be little need of schoolsand colleges of commerce. But, it has been well said, "as the majority of young men are neitherso capable as to be sure of success, however illtrained, nor so incapable as to be sure of failure,however well trained, the difference which training may make seems sufficient to determine us togive it. All that special preparation can possiblydo is to make those who have the natural giftsthat lead to success somewhat better, and to makethose in whom these natural gifts are deficientsomewhat less bad."This is the general case, moderately stated, Ibelieve, for higher commercial education. It wilfbe said, however, that all this is pure assertion,and lacks the support of convincing proof. Toa degree it must be admitted that the propositionis incapable of a mathematical demonstration.But the same may be said of the opposite contention. A great many things are right that yetcannot be proved so to the satisfaction of everyobjector. All, it seems to me, that may reasonably be demanded is that a strong presumptionin favor of the successful outcome of collegiatecommercial instruction be established, before theexperiment is sanctioned. I stop briefly, therefore, to try to make it good.We hear it said repeatedly that the businessman's best aids are common sense and experience.Granted. But what is experience but unorganizedtraining and what is training but well-organizedexperience ? And, as to common sense, what isit but the faculty of seeing and understandingthings as they are and appraising them at theirreal value ? So far from its being a sense that isborn with us it is one of the rarest of possessions.Its elements are observation and reflection. It isfar more than a power of eye ; it is a power ofmind, a power of reasoning, for the eye sees onlywhat it brings with it the power to see. Thismeans that the merchant must be a thinker, anda thinker of a high order; for many of his problems are difficult, involving unknown quantitieswhich require for their estimation powers oforiginal insight. Rules of thumb, based on precedent or authority, will not suffice. The routineelements in modern business are becoming fewerand less important. The situation of any greattrade is so ceaselessly shifting that only the accurate and quick intelligence can detect its drift.Every great merchant must be rule-maker untohimself. The difference between the large merchant and the small merchant lies precisely there.It is not, as so commonly supposed, a difference220 UNIVERSITY RECORDin capital ; for that itself must be explained. Itis a difference in personal business power — a difference in ability to grasp the meaning of an asyet undeveloped situation and devise the meansof meeting it. It is no mere figure of speech thathas long likened business to warfare and calledbusiness heads captains of industry. It was asoldier-scholar himself, the late lamented FrancisA. Walker, that popularized that verisimilitudeamong American economists. Merchant andsoldier alike must be men of thought as well asof action. Indeed the merchant-general of thefuture will be a von Moltke, sitting in the quietof his study, with map and pencil planningoperations for the distant field of action.A complete catalogue of the requisites of business proficiency would, no doubt, include manymore than those thus far mentioned, but not anymore important. Habits of industry, responsibility, carefulness, and promptitude are certainlynecessary. These are moral qualities and may bedeveloped in home or workshop, as well as in college. Alertness, enterprise, shrewdness, and cleverness make a second group. These are largelynative qualities of mind. They are highly prized,too highly prized, I am disposed to think, in thebusiness world of the United States. The greatmerchant is much more than a clever manipulatoror a shrewd trader. It should be the function ofthese qualities to put a keen edge upon those bigger ones that alone can make a man a formidablepower in the world of commerce. Commerce ismore than a game of wit or a game of deceit.This brings us to a third group of aptitudes, whichwill be rated the higher the more thoroughly weappreciate the exigencies of modern commerceand industry. Typical of this group of aptitudesare the powers of observation, concentration,analysis, reflection, and forecast. These arepowers of mind. I cannot stop to describe,except most briefly, the changes in the organization and structure of modern industry that hasgiven the primacy to these aptitudes. Thosechanges are the outcome, of course, of the wonderful improvements wrought in the machinery ofproduction, transport, and communication. Theadvantages that large scale operations possess oversmall scale, in the distributing no less than in themanufacturing industries, have greatly increasedthe size of the modern business unit. The sameorder of circumstances has also greatly increasedthe complexity and range of business. Local industry and local markets have given way to aworld industry and world-markets. Its cargoesare marked "outward bound," the empire of commerce is pushing its frontiers to the ends of theearth. At the same time business has becomemore speculative, because more uncertain. Themodern industrial world devotes a larger proportion of its energy and resources to the productionof goods for future consumption. "Futures" inthis sense are a necessary feature of all trade.Plans are laid long in advance, their issue at bestis uncertain. But the uncertainties can be greatly-reduced by skilled and deliberate calculation. Itis one of the highest functions of scientific trainingto develop the power of forecasting future conditions. Comte made the power of predictionthe test of true science. Here, we have an extraordinary group of mental aptitudes of thehighest service in business, where reinforced withthe requisite special knowledge, that are capableof development in most men through the training which it should be the aim of the College ofCommerce to provide.Up to this point this discussion has tacitlyaccepted the ordinary mercantile view that business is followed for gain, that it is solely a money-getting pursuit ; and the attempt has been madeto show what the higher education could datoward developing the business aptitudes. Butthere is another aspect of the matter that mustnot be forgotten. The universities would be untrue to their great historical office as bearers ofsome of the noblest traditions of our country, ifthey did not hold up a broader view of success,even in the business life. It is the royal prerogative of the colleges to inspire young men withhigher visions, and unless they do this in everydepartment of their teaching, they fail, and nothing can compensate for the failure. Opportunityand obligation are the twin watchwords of theuniversity, and the university would widen itsopportunities in vain, if it did not at the sametime spread a wider sense of the obligations ofwealth, success, and opportunity thoughout thecommunity. There never was a time in the history of our country when it was so important forthe great business interests to have the conscienceof the nation with them. Many people are growing restive under what they are pleased to regardas the aggressions of concentrated wealth andindustry. The legislatures and the courts arealready showing an inclination to invest privateUNIVERSITY RECORD 221enterprise with something of a public character,and unless the, public is disarmed of its fears wemay at no distant day hear proclaimed the doctrine that private industry is a public trust. Themodern business system is on trial, and its fatewill depend largely on the spirit displayed bythose in command of industry. If business isconducted in a narrow, selfish, unyielding spirit,indifferent to the sentiment of the community, orcontemptuous of the equities of others, it is nobold prophecy to say that the early decades ofthe twentieth century will witness some strikingsocial transformations. I am one of those thatbelieve there is a strong tendency in our presentindustrial system for things to find their ownlevels, and for most men to earn about what theyare worth. But I recognize that this tendencyencounters some serious obstacles, that misfortuneand success are not infrequently the result ofsocial circumstance. I cannot agree with thatschool of sociology which argues that the law ofsurvival sets the divine seal upon the presentsocial order. For, as an eminent social philosopher has pointed out, the Darwinian law does notassert that those survive who are best fitted tobenefit their environment, but that those survivewho are best fitted to thrive in their environmentand utilize it for their own purposes. It is notan altogether righteous law, nor are its consequences altogether wholesome. It cannot absolveman, in any sphere, from his social responsibilities. Human intention will forever play a greatrole in the affairs of this world. How infinitelyimportant, then, for the salvation of democracyand the destiny of society that the men who shallstand forth as the pleaders in industry shall alsobe leaders in citizenship. Only then can theyjustify the proud title of merchant-prince.Permit me in conclusion to ask : Have we notin this new sphere of education that is openingmp before us an opportunity to embrace, as wellas a duty to perform ?Professor H. W. Thurston, of the Chicago Normal School, read the following paper :As the words " Higher Education " have a variable meaning, it should be stated at once that thehigher education that I have in mind is the present and the possible, rather than the historical.The difference between the type of higher education which I reject and the one which I wish todiscuss seems to me to be partly a difference in scope, but more fundamentally a difference inspirit and method. Higher education seems tobe tending more and more toward an examination of the whole circle of .truth instead of a fewshort ecclesiastical, philosophical, and conventionally chosen arcs of this circle. The wholeattained and attainable truth about that part ofthe universe that is not man, the whole attainedand attainable truth about that part of the universe that is man, this is the spirit of the newhigher education. No so-called higher education which has a lower motive than this conies,by the purpose of the writer of this paper, intothe discussion. The first variable in the topicmay thus be treated as a constant from the pointof view of its motive.But there is also a second variable involved,namely, " success in a business life." The limitsof this are, in one direction, success from the individualistic point of view, and in the other direction, success from a societary point of view. Withsuch a wide range of variation possible, it will bedifficult to give the second variable a constantmeaning throughout the discussion, but the normthat will be held in mind is such a success in abusiness life as most genuinely secures both individual and societary welfare. Neither that business success which constantly and consciouslyseeks individual welfare at the expense of society,nor that which seeks to render service to societythrough a process of self-immolation, is thebusiness life consciously chosen for the main partof this discussion. The first is closely akin todeliberate robbery and the second above theplane of economic contract in near relationshipto the life of the Nazarene. The business lifewhich has a normal development, and whichshould be here primarily considered, is that whichsecures for the individual a reasonable return inservices and wealth for the services and wealthgiven by him to society.After this statement of intention to discuss therelation of higher education to success in legitimate business as above defined, a word may perhaps be allowed, in passing, to point out one ortwo possible relations between such an educationand illegitimate business. It is often charged, itmust be admitted with too good reason often, thatsome of our victorious captains of industry wThocommand the armies of a national, or even international business, are like the armed barons offeudal times who from some impregnable castle222 UNIVERSITY RECORDswooped down upon unwary caravans, merchants,and defenseless farmers, and carried away byarmed force the plunder thus secured. But evenwhere there is good foundation for this charge, itshould always be pointed out that there is usuallyat least this difference between the two personscompared : the feudal baron made no pretensewhatever of rendering an equivalent for that whichhe took, while the modern baron as a rule offerssomething which, at least for the moment, hisvictim thinks he prefers to that which is takenfrom him. In other words, the social welfareand the public opinion of society are now so farregarded that a man engaged in illegitimate business finds it expedient to try to make it appear,at least, that he is a servant of the public. Touse another trite but forcible illustration, whereasthe wolf of former days came boldly to the sheep-fold clad only in his own skin, he no longer daresto come near without taking the precaution tocover himself with the sheep's clothing. We aredoubtless all agreed that this pretended socialservice, which still cloaks so much rascality in ourindustrial, political, and social world, must insome way be transformed into genuine servicebefore legitimate modern business and politicscan be redeemed to their noblest possibilities.To this redemption, it seems to me, a higher education that is courageous and true to the motivedescribed at the beginning of this paper can contribute much, both directly, by sending men ofthe highest ideals and broadest culture into thenoble business arena of the future, and indirectly,by sending into all other occupations men of likeculture and ideals, who will take the lead in theformation of a public opinion so strong that anyman who attempts to carry on a cutthroat business, or use a political position to betray the public, shall feel its scorn, and, if necessary, its law,its executive strength, and its judicial condemnation.A brief consideration will now be given to thefollowing questions :i. Is economic success all that a man shouldthink of when he uses the words " success in abusiness life" ?2. Does the increasing complexity and scopeof legitimate modern business demand an increasing thoroughness and breadth of preparation bythose who are to direct it ?3. Can the foundations of this preparation belaid better by one who is already carrying the burdens of business, or by him who has not yetassumed them ?4. Can any modification be made in highereducation which will make its relation to successin business life more helpful ?In respect to the first question, it is a biological and psychological fact that extreme specialization of any function, certainly by the immature,tends to absorb physical and mental energy tosuch a degree that expression of the personalitythrough other functions is relatively imperfectand unsatisfactory. The normal man should beable to react pleasurably, both to himself andothers, in the presence of many other societaryconditions than those that result in an economiccontract. Economic success in a business lifeunfortunately does not always mean success in atruly social, aesthetic, . broadly intelligent, andmoral life. As yet, especially in new countrieslike America, great numbers of men have beenable to gain great pecuniary success in business,in return for legitimate services rendered tosociety, without gaining a well-balanced successas human beings. Important as it is, the economic side of a man's life is not the whole of it."A man's life consisteth not in the abundance ofthe things that he possesseth," even if thosethings have all come into his possession in exchange for a full equivalent in service to society.Our faithful, friendly, and discerning Englishcritic speaks in no uncertain tone upon thispoint : " In no country," says Mr. Brice, " doesone find so many men of eminent capacity forbusiness, shrewd, forcible, and daring, who are souninteresting, so intellectually barren, outside thesphere of their business knowledge." Is it toomuch to expect that for this particular type ofsuccessful business man a higher education worthy the name would do much toward giving himthat more abundant life which cannot be satisfiedwith things ?Again, even upon the plane of the economiclife, merely as a means to legitimate business success of a high order, is it not possible that thehigher education may in the future be a morehelpful factor to a young business man than it hashitherto been ?The economic relations of a man to his fellowsare daily becoming more complex. With the exception of a little trade in those articles whichcombined great value with small bulk, almost alltrade, manufacture, and extractive industry, in-UNIVERSITY RECORD 223eluding agriculture, have been, until a few decadesacro, in comparison with similar industries of today, narrowly local and extremely simple. Underthese restricted and well-known conditions, andeven during the days of the first exploitation ofthe natural resources of our country, business success has depended more upon a rude sort of physical and mental energy and aggressiveness, bothtoward nature and man, than upon a genuineknowledge of science and of society. Today, notonly in warfare but in many kinds of business,mere strength, boldness, and a certain burly persistency of body and mind do not avail againstless burly men who know how to aim guns by theuse of mathematical formulae, and fire them byelectricity. As Olive Schreiner puts this thought :" Year by year, month by month, and almost hourby hour, this change is increasingly shaping itselfin the field of the modern man's labor ; and crudemuscular force, whether in man or beast, sinkscontinually in its value in the field of human toil,while intellectual power, virility, and activity, andthat culture which leads to the mastery of theinanimate forces of nature, to the invention ofmachinery, and to the delicate manipulative skillrequired in guiding it, become ever of greaterand greater importance to the race."In order to render acceptable service to theworld as an economic producer, as a businessman, in a large sense, it is coming daily to bemore necessary to know not only the world'sresources in materials, and to be able to controlthe use of the latest machinery and processes, butalso to keep pace with developments in theworld's mental and spiritual life. In a word, business men have on their hands the task of providing for their constituency food, clothing, shelter,and all the material aids to a higher life, in competition with the best equipped men of the world.Industry in general has burst the bonds of fireside,guild, town, even national control, and is becoming international.As an inevitable corollary, it seems to me, ofthis growing complexity of industry and businesscomes the necessity for a world knowledge bythose men who are to lead in the world's business.Nor is this necessary world knowledge of a purelytechnical kind. It is more fundamental and furnishes a necessary foundation for the technicalknowledge of each particular branch of business.Again, it seemingly follows that, as the knowl edge needed is not merely technical, those partsof it which are fundamental can be more thoroughly and quickly mastered by one who devotesall his energies to the task than by him who isalready burdened with the necessity of doing hisday's work in actual business.Thus far in the discussion it has been assumedthat the business man in our thought is to be atthe head of the business. It should now, however, be pointed out, that what has been saidapplies with scarcely less force to all the heads ofdepartments in a modern business, in fact to allupon whose independent judgment and knowledge of nature and man the success of the business in any way depends. Nay, more, we should notlose sight of the truth that, just so far as there areattempts to make all the persons connected withthe business interested in it and, to the extent oftheir abilities, responsible for its success andsharers in its prosperity, the argument applies tothem also. The possibilities of cooperative ownership and administration of business can never befully realized until the majority of the cooperatorsare broadly intelligent and severely ethical intheir ideals and conduct.In conclusion, the possible negative effect ofthe higher education in deterring men fromattempting to gain pecuniary success by illegitimate methods, and the possible positiveeffect of making a man not only more of a manin general, but better able to render economicservice to the world in the midst of conditions ofgrowing complexity, can be realized only on certain conditions.Not only must the motive of the higher education be the whole truth about that part of theuniverse that is not man and about that part thatis man, but in some way or other we must succeedfar better than at present in carrying over themethods, the courage, the honesty, the freedom,of our search for truth in physical nature to oursearch for truth in human society.When all the men in all the institutions thatare devoted to the higher education can face allthe problems of our industrial, political, social,and religious environment with the same scientificspirit, evenness of pulse, and readiness to acceptthe truth with which the chemist awaits the resultof a chemical reaction, the relation of the highereducation to success in a business life will bemore vital than it is today.224 UNIVERSITY RECORDMr. A. C. Bartlett, of Chicago, continued thediscussion in the following paper :A professional gentleman called at the office ofmy friend, and said, " I wish you would take myson into your store." "Yes — what are yourson's capabilities, qualifications ; what is he goodfor?" "That is just what I would like to know.I have given him a liberal education, and havetried him at almost everything. He seems to beutterly worthless. I think he would make a merchant." That gentleman's grandfather, in assisting his sons to choose their vocations in life,doubtless looked with satisfaction and pride uponthe one who evinced an aptitude for business ;who gave promise of being the successful merchant of the family. If the life of that grandfather, like the Jives of his ancestors, was spent inforcing a scanty livelihood from the reluctant soilof New England (which is quite probable) hismost natural and earnest desire was to choose someless toilsome and more remunerative occupationfor his descendants. The village storekeeper wasthe representative of both the ease and opulenceso desirable, and was the one man in all theneighborhood who could reasonably hope foreventual retirement from an active life — that firststep toward a homemade American aristocracy.By way of mental preparation the prospectiveclerk was given a little extra drill in arithmetic,a few more lessons in penmanship, a trifle morereadiness of tongue in reading than were deemednecessary for life on the farm. Beyond the mererudiments, education could not be utilized in thelife of the merchant.Since that period, men of energy have learnedthat change from an active to an idle life means,not happiness, but misery ; not rest, but weariness.The active, earnest men of today never retire.Diversity of thought and labor constitute theirrecreation and pleasure. The steel wears to theweld ; it is not consumed by rust. The desire forease is becoming as obsolete as is a longing forperfect leisure. Torpid brain and flabby musclesnever brought their possessor real pleasure. Inthe progress of our evolution, too, we have, in ourcountry, come upon an age in which the jingleof dollars is not quite so musical as it has been inthe past ; in which mind is more generally heldsuperior to matter, and mental culture more universally preferred to mere possession of money ;and in which the price of indulgences is no longer payable in cash but in conscience and character. Money has cheapened itself. The expenditure of the half despised dollars for purposes ofhigher education has been one of the most potentagencies for bringing these self-same representatives of wealth into comparative disrepute. Moneyhas provided the tools and the labor with whichthe monuments to wealth are being rehewn intofoundations for knowledge. With education hascome the realization that the highest form of life,and hence the happiest and most useful state ofexistence, will be reached through a combinationof physical comfort, rich furnishings, and carefuladornments of the mind, and an inclination andability to serve one's fellow men.Were we to ascribe to wealth all the follies,foibles, and weaknesses which are directly traceable to its partnership with ignorance, or are theresults of its abuse or misuse, intelligence andeducation would draw back from the channelsthrough which it is most easily accumulated.The question which presents itself is, Must,then, the college boy of the future who shall bepursuing a classical course invariably be confronted with the enquiry " What profession shallyou follow?" and is he never asked, "Have youaspirations for a commercial life ? " Must thechoice between trade and profession be made outside the college walls, and, when made, must itdetermine the general education ?Is it true that education and culture are notcompatible with trade and commerce ? Because,forsooth, manufacturing, merchandising, realestate dealings, railroading, banking and corresponding, commercial and semi-commercial pursuits have produced the greatest financial resultsand have produced them the most rapidly, musttheir promoters be irrevocably placed upon thelist of intellectual impossibilities ?During the transition from pioneers to scholarsthrough which the people of our country havebeen and are still passing, trade and commerceare frankly credited with a large share of the material prosperity which has made possible the establishing of schools and colleges, the rapidspread of scientific knowledge among the thinking classes, the growing love for music and forart, the development of literary taste and effort.Will the scholarly attainments of the future beallotted to the professions, or shall trade receiveits share of recruits from college and universities ?UNIVERSITY RECORD 225If the life of the merchant must necessarily beconfined to mere money getting and hoarding,the less education that is wasted upon him andthe fewer cultured minds that are sacrificed tomercantile life, the better for mankind. But if,on the contrary, an ability to buy and sell, exportand import, solve the questions intervening between those of supply and demand with profit tohimself, appreciate, make use of, and enjoy a liberal education, cultivate the higher faculties ofthe mind, know something of philosophy, science, literature, are not incongruous attainmentsin the life of an individual, intelligence and education do not demean themselves by an alliancewith trade and commerce. We are all, perforce,money makers. No prudent man determines hispursuit in life without considering, primarily, hisability through such pursuit to provide for thetemporal wants of himself and those dependentupon him.The theological student has faith that he willreceive for his sermons and his pastoral workenough money to support himself and any familythe good Lord may send him, or he would notpursue a theological course. The law studentconfidently looks forward to the receipt of largeand frequent retainers followed by his presentation of large and frequent bills, or he would findCoke and Blackstone much less interesting authors than they now are.The medical student dreams of the day whenthe efficacy of his pills and potions will be acknowledged by numerous prompt-paying patients,insuring, him a comfortable living during hisyears of strength and activity, and a competencefor old age, or he would "throw physic to thedogs."It is not claimed for trade (under which headmay well be classed banking and nearly allbranches of what is termed business) the exclusiveprerogative of money making ; but when we seethat the salary of a first-class salesman in a citymercantile or manufacturing establishment islarger than that of the most popular clergyman ;that the income of a well equipped credit man isfar in excess of that of the Chief Justice of theUnited States ; that the net profits of the business of a comparatively small shopkeeper are preferable to the fees of the most skillful physician ;that the salary of an ordinary bookkeeper islarger than that of the most successful teacher ;that the possible accumulations of a merchant may exceed in amount the combined accumulations of all the members of any profession in thesame city, we are led to conclude that the easyand short road to independence or wealth is notthe one marked out for professional men to follow.The simple ratio of time and labor to results, somuch in favor of the merchant when physicalnecessities and comforts only are considered, be-xome compounded when luxuries, the embellishments of those necessities and comforts, aredeemed desirable.The professions cannot open their doors to allthe intelligent and ambitious young men whomthis age is developing. Neither does intelligenceand education fit men for positions that naturedid not intend them to fill. Artificially bendingthe twig to incline the tree produces some veryweak timber.The fond hopes and ambitions of parents nevermade a successful clergyman from a son who preferred the study of mathematics to that of theBible. If the young man is endowed with thosefaculties of mind which make the preacher; ifpossessed of those qualities of heart which mustbelong to a successful pastor ; if filled with sucha desire to lead his fellow men to salvation thatit amounts to a call from Heaven, there is noopportunity for a choice. Upon a young manso equipped, nature in the outset stamped herunerring prophecy. He has no place in theworld outside that profession which ranks aboveall the other walks of life.The boy with an analytical turn of mind ; witha faculty for reason which enables him quickly toarrive at correct conclusions ; an ability to makethe views of his fellows upon debatable questionscoincide with his own ; a power of absorption andretention which can readily store for future usethe dry details of old and new enactment, and oftheir frequent revisions, was born to be a lawyer.He requires no prompting, but naturally driftsinto the study and practice of law, irrespective ofany suggestions by parents or guardians.A desire fully to understand the physical construction and wants of the human body, a lovefor chemistry ; the possession of a nervous system, which is undisturbed by contact with the illsand accidents of fellow beings, and which is insulated from the sympathies of the heart ; a naturalsubtlety of skill which early develops in the sickroom, are predictions which unerringly point to226 UNIVERSITY RECORDthe medical college and beyond it to the practiceof medicine. To relieve bodily suffering, to bringhealth and consequent happiness to the sick anddisconsolate, to lengthen human life, shouldsatisfy the highest ambition for the accomplishingof good. The physician's mission in the world isChrist-like; the confidence reposed in him isgreater than that accorded to the priest in theconfessional ; he is entitled to and receives thegratitude of those he so faithfully serves.The young man who evinces an ability to reason from cause to effect, and thus from bases ofpast or present conditions determine probableresults; who, in other words, is "long headed;"who is companionable ; who has keen perceptivefaculties which later in life will insure correctjudgment, whether it relates to men or commodities, was born to be a business man. The boywho is sharp, who succeeds in palming upon anunsuspecting playmate a broken-backed, bladelesspocket knife in exchange for a good dinner or anew hat, has not the instincts of a merchant, butof a horse jockey. Purchase and sale of propertyby tradesmen is predicated upon the mutual profitof purchaser and seller. The history of trade andcommerce is an honorable one; it is ancient.These branches of what are termed " business "date their origin from the time when productionbecame of value outside and beyond the needsof the producer. They are co-existent with thosedivisions of labor which harmoniously utilize theforces and gifts of nature. They brought primitive man from supplying his own wants directly,by his own individual labor, to that system ofexchange which was the beginning of all materialprogress and prosperity ; the framework of civilization, science, art and religion. They havebrought together the uttermost parts of the earth,making the surplus of one locality to minister tothe comfort of another ; they have paved the wayfor missionaries and teachers ; they have developedthe enterprise of all the people from Phoeniciansto Yankees ; have founded and built the greatcities of the world from Carthage to Chicago.They have opened avenues to historical and scientific research and knowledge, and have broughtgovernments in contact with each other to theirmutual advantage and improvement.Trade and commerce can boast of no aristocratic blue blood of idleness, but of an ancient,honorable record for usefulness. There are noshadows upon their fair fame except those cast by the misdirection, treachery, greed, or dishonestyof their representatives. The principles uponwhich they were founded are universally pronounced correct, and there is no indication ofinherent weakness in the past which mark themas unworthy of adoption by the intelligence of thepresent day.The intercourse of nations through the mediumof commerce, the acquirement of knowledge, thegrowth of civilization, the interchange of ideas,the development of natural resources are as certainly promoted by traffic today as they were athousand years ago. Greater facilities have produced greater results ; new inventions and discoveries have broadened the fields, and a bettercivilization has opened new channels of usefulness.Trade is a school of benevolence in which itspupils should be fitted for that practice of philanthropy in which their business prosperity willenable them to engage. Each golden harvest ofsuccess may be utilized in giving growth andadding to the vigor of a score of useful enterprises, to insuring prosperity and happiness to theotherwise poor and unhappy of God's children.Civilization and intelligence have determinedthe best use to which money can be devoted is torelieving the sufferings of the unfortunate, increasing the number and the efficiency of the meansof education, and to making the world better.They are teaching that the life lease held uponproperty does not constitute ownership ; that thecustodian is responsible for the usefulness of hisholdings, and that there can be no lasting entailment of dollars. The realization of these facts isleading men personally to direct the expenditureof their own benefaction, to engage actively inworks of philanthropy, mercy, and reform. Theinstances where men of wealth loosen their holdupon surplus accumulations without the intervention of the Angel of Death are daily growingmore numerous. The example of the Peabodysis more frequently emulated, the policy of theGirards more generally questioned, and the careerof the Stewarts more thoroughly despised. Thefield of "Love's Labor" in which liberal minded,benevolently inclined, public spirited citizens maybe profitably employed is broadening with theincreased facilities for doing the work.If I have correctly defined the true business life,need I, in this presence, explain the Relation ofthe College to Business Success ?UNIVERSITY RECORD 227The teacher, editor, literary man, doctor, lawyer, preacher, each fills his respective place in theworld, performing his share of the world's tasks,developing, so far as his work goes, only thosefunctions of the brain and body which are requiredin the performance of his prescribed duties.Whether the field of employment be that of aprofession, of agriculture, trade, mechanics, orordinary manual labor, it will assuredly be narrowunless the workman goes beyond the boundaryof his chosen vocation.The "one idea" men are not confined to anyparticular walk in life. Breadth and versatilitycan only be acquired outside the little workshopsof profession and business in which men areindividually employed. Study which is recreation, contact with intelligence which is real society,thought which is distinct from vocation are theInfluences which broaden. Does the business lifeof a tradesman necessarily circumscribe his intellectual life ?Have merchants no time to devote to literature,a technical study of music and art, a knowledgeof history, an acquaintance with public questions,outside of those relating to business and politics ?Do the comparative analyses of the daily lives ofprofessional and business men show any widemargin of leisure for general mental developmentand pleasure in favor of the professions? Has notthe merchant, the detail of whose business can bedelegated, a better and more certain command ofhis time than has the professional man of his ?We are pleading in behalf of the vocation in lifeto which, undeservedly, but by consent of theeducated world, have in most part been consignedthe mentally incapacitated, the half educated, andthe ignorant. Undeservedly, because the occupation of a business man requires for its best resultsas fair measure and as great activity of brain asdoes the most satisfactory outcome of a professional career. You teachers will repeatedly becalled upon to give your advice to the young whoare approaching that point in life from which thediverging roads of the future take their beginning.I beg of you that the advice which shall influencea choice between trade and profession be givenupon the score of special fitness, rather than uponthat of general intelligence.If a boy has brains and a desire to use them,do not insist that a profession is his only alternative ; that eminent success in life must be predicated or dependent upon the spiritual disease, moral obliquity, bodily ailments, or mental povertyof his fellow men.Encourage him in the acquisition of the broadest,most liberal education, and then, if his tastes incline him toward a mercantile life, assure him that,following his inclination, his talents and education will not be wasted, that his life can be madea useful one, and that it will not, necessarily, bedeprived of the keenest and highest of intellectualpleasures. With the newly devised commercialdepartments, the college and the university arethe best preparatory schools for a successful business life.A discussion followed the reading of thesepapers.Mr. Miller, of the Jefferson High School, said that in theeducational history of this country there had been threegreat movements: first, a simple demand for the rudiments of education for common-school training ; second, amovement leading to the establishment of secondary schoolsand universities — of secondary schools with courses of studyformulated in accordance with the standards of the universities ; of university courses leading to a profession. Thethird movement was for a higher education for the middleclasses, which would better prepare the great middle classfor technical and mercantile life. The colleges and universities are bound to take an interest in this work. Thewidening of the courses today and the establishment ofcourses in commerce in many of our best institutions showthat the university is alive to the new demand of the times.Colonel Fleet said that not every boy is fitted for aprofession ; that it is a waste of time and money to giveevery boy a college education. He thought that one of themost important duties of the principal of a school is tostudy the wants and capabilities of the boys and advisethem in the choice of an occupation. He thought there isneed of a greater number of endowed secondary schoolsthan exist at present.Dean Trowbridge claimed that business men prefer totrain their boys ; that they dislike to employ college boys ;that the college boy is not willing to begin at the very bottom and work his way through every phase of his business.He said that many of these business men feel that the college is a sort of hothouse and sheltered place, which doesnot truly prepare one for business life.President Harper gave an account of an experimentby one of our railway officials, which seemed to demonstratethe value of college training to a man in any department ofwork.228 UNIVERSITY RECORDSuperintendent Dougherty said that the WabashRailroad Company will admit no one to their shops inPeoria who has not a high-school education. He statedthat Horace Greeley, in the early history of his connectionwith the New York Tribune, denounced colleges and college training and would employ no college men. In hislater life he utterly changed his mind and all his staff wereselected from college men. Mr. Dougherty also stated thatthe staff on the New York Tribune today is composedentirely of college men. He said that the Chamber of Commerce of Peoria, which had done so much for the develop *ment of the city, was formed originally of college men.Professor Judson thought that generalization in thesubject of the value of college training for business wasdangerous. One is inclined to depend too much upon conspicuous exceptions. Boys differ so much that some succeed and some fail anyhow, and it is difficult to determinewhich case is the exceptional one. He believed that thelong course in college and professional schools puts a boyback in time but that there is compensation for this apparent loss. It is important to remember that success does notmean only the accumulation of property ; that the facultyfor the accumulation of property is often found in peoplewho have very little ability in any other direction ; that astandard which measures success only by property is a narrow one. He thought the main value of a college trainingis to open the mind, to enable one to see a point.President Forbes, of Stetson University, called attention to the distinction that exists between the words " profession" and "business." He thought we ought to dropthe word " profession " or extend its meaning. He deniedthat the work of the professional man is of a higher orderthan that of the business man ; that the distinction betweenthe words might as well be" dropped altogether ; that thereis no reason why the college should prepare for professiona\life and not for business life ; that the law has no morebusiness to be called a " learned profession " than commercial life has. The educational standards and other standards for admission to the bar are no higher than thoserequired of a successful business man. The same is true ofmedicine, and no argument can be advanced for the support of schools of law and medicine that would not apply aswell to schools for preparation for business.Principal Westcott, of the North Division HighSchool, argued that the average man's choice of business isdetermined very largely by accident. He thought a highereducation would be no detriment to a man in any walk oflife and that it would be the means of satisfaction to theman who was through with his business life. He thoughtthat many boys entered business life or were advised anddid enter business life because they utterly refused to takeany advantage of school. Many of these soon saw theirmistake and went back to school. Principal Robinson, of the English High and ManualTraining School, thought the discussion was limiting itselfto the smallest part of the community. There are only175,000 men in college today, or one in 430 of the population. Such a number could not come anywhere near supplying the world with its business men. He said that less.than 5 per cent, of the population are taking advantage ofthe opportunities that require a high-school education. He.stated that he had asked the heads of departments in manyof our business houses as to what class of employes turnedout best — college men, high-school men, or others, and thathis investigations seemed to show that the most successfulpeople had been people who left school somewhere duringthe high-school period. He did not claim that his investigations were conclusive in the matter, as they were notmade with the idea of proving any particular point.Professor Miller, in closing the discussion, stated thata smaller per cent, of the population is in college today than.was the case a quarter of a century ago. It is, no doubt,,true that people are doubting whether colleges are givingthe kind of training that is necessary for business life. Boththe selection of such a man as President Hadley of Yale and.the character of his inaugural address show that peoplerealize that our university ideals must change to suit the demands of modern life. The colleges have been too largelyfollowing the Puritan ideals of a century ago. The universities should, to some degree, recognize the changes takingplace in business and commercial life. He thought it wastrue that the universities should represent the permanent:ideals of the race, but that we might blend with these someof the more utilitarian and practical studies of today. Culture may be obtained from other things than the time -honoredcurriculum. He read to the conference a statement from;President Low, of Columbia, as to what should constitute acollege course that would both give culture and have practical utility.V. THE DEPARTMENTAL CONFERENCES.The Departmental Conferences were held on.Saturday at 2:00 p.m. as follows :At the Departmental Conference in Chemistry aboutforty-five teachers were present. The relations of class room.and laboratory work were first discussed. The discussionturned chiefly on which of the two should control the sequenceand coherence in the presentation of the subject. Mr..Schoch, who introduced the subject, and others who spoke,,favored throwing the responsibility largely on the laboratorywork.The report on Chemistry presented to the N. E. A. by its-Committee on College Entrance Requirements was next discussed. The reservation of symbols and equations, to a con-UNIVERSITY RECORD 229•siderable extent, until after quantitative experiment, asTecommended in this report, was the only point which received extended consideration. The report as a whole wasapproved.The conference in Zoology met in the Botanical Laboratory. About eighty persons were present. Assistant Pro-lessor Davenport presided.Mr. Davenport spoke on methods of teaching Zoology.He referred first to the methods of which he did not approve.The study of systematic Zoology exclusively from a textbook was unprofitable ; the exclusive use of any text-bookwas recognized as inadequate although the text-book wasregarded as a valuable adjunct to laboratory work. In laboratory work the type dissection of animals which is the prevailing method does not meet the aim of secondary instruction in Zoology. That aim should be to interest the studentin the subject and give him such instruction as will enableliim to get more from out-of-door observation of nature ; byinteresting him in nature to make him a better citizen. Thisaim may be accomplished by studying a larger number oftypes with reference to their external anatomy and theiractivities, and by field work.Mr. F. C. Lucas, of the Englewood High School, agreedthat the study of the live animal was important, but he believed in using every means necessary to make clear what isto him the chief point, viz., the idea of increasing complexity accompanying differentiation in the animal kingdom.So he begins with the lowest animals and considers in turnthe higher forms. He referred to the practical difficultiesin getting time for excursions.Mr. E. E. Burns, speaking as not a professional zoologist remarked that it seemed to him that the universityshould provide instruction for teachers of the characterreferred to.Mr. J. E. Halliman, of Ottawa, 111., described his methodsof teaching with live animals.Mr. H. E. Walters, of the North Division High School,told how his students were encouraged to observe bird migrations at Lincoln Park, ninety-seven species having been determined last spring. This work has been carried on forseveral years outside of school hours.Mr. McGee, of the Hyde Park School, said that we mustseek to interest the pupil as far as possible along the lines ofprevious interest, to train them in the habit of making observations in later life. Students must be led to appreciate theentertainment which the world about them can afford.Mr. Mitchell, of the Hyde Park School, remarked uponthe great natural interest which the study of animal life hadfor children. Philosophical discussions are to be avoided, theaverage student should be introduced to animals as they areand in their natural environment. Any material which will raise questions about the world of living organisms may beused. Even if dissection is not taught the enthusiastic pupilcannot be restrained from it ; he will dissect at home.Dr. H. C. Cowles, University of Chicago, spoke on theplace of ecology in the secondary schools. Ecology treatsof the relations of organisms to their environment. The difficulties of the subject are not great. The very grass on ourlawns serves as one of the best objects of study. Why isgrass so successful as compared with Trillium? Thisinquiry leads us to see the highly advantageous nature of theroot stock. So the folding of the leaf of grass leads us tounderstand why the stomata are on its upper side instead ofthe lower, as in most leaves. Thus wherever we have grasswe have material for ecological studies. Of coifrse swampy,sandy, and other environments offer additional problems,but one half of the outdoor study of Dr. Cowles' own classis done within a block of the university. In response to aninquiry as to whether ecology should be the main part of theplant instruction, or incidental, Dr. Cowles said that it wasnot practical to make it the main thing ; structure comes first,but structure and ecology should go hand in hand.Mr. Mitchell remarked that in order to carry out theecological work on living plants the schools needed betterequipment : aquaria, vivara, etc.The following subject was suggested for the next conference : " Should Zoology and Botany be taught together during one year, or should a year's instruction be offered in onesubject or the other as an alternative."The Departmental Conference in French was held inCobb Hall, D 17 c. Twenty-two instructois in affiliatedschools, high schools, and in the University of Chicago metin conference. The discussion was opened by Miss Wallace,of the University of Chicago, who summarized the report ofthe Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association, dwelling especially upon that portion of the reportrelating to the proposal of three national grades for preparatory schools. A general discussion of the report followed.The merits of the phonetic system were entered upon, thegeneral opinion being that the mechanical difficulties are toogreat to permit of its practical adoption in toto.Dr. de Poyen Bellisle then opened a discussion asto the best readings to be used in the second year's study ofFrench. He outlined a course, recommending strongly theuse of selections from the classic authors, such as Demo-geot's selections from seventeenth century authors. Dr. dePoyen Bellisle was followed by Miss d' Agneau, of LewisInstitute, who advocated the adoption of historical selectionsfrom the writings of Michelet, Taine, etc. The discussionwas continued by Mr. Ernst Sicard, of the South Side HighSchool, and then taken up generally by the conference. Thegeneral opinion expressed was that more attention should begiven to solid classic prose, and less to modern story writers..230 UNIVERSITY RECORDThe Departmental Conference in History took up thequestion, "What shall be emphasized in the teaching ofHistory in the Secondary Schools ? " The Report of theCommittee of Seven of the American Historical Associationguided the remarks of several of the speakers.Principal French, of the Hyde Park HighSchool, began the discussion of the Report of theCommittee of Seven, devoting his attention tothe teaching of history in the high schools. Inhis opinion the report of the committee was thebest ever presented, and most of the recommendations deserved adoption. A four years'course in history was possible for the highschools, and he believed that such a course wouldbe secured in Chicago within ten years. Inregard to the method of teaching history, heemphasized particularly two points, which he considered essential to the success of such teachingin the high schools. In the first place, the study ofinstitutions should be insisted upon in preferenceto the study of dates and events. The particularvalue of history lay in the information about theinstitutions of the past. In the second place, history should be studied as a correlated whole insteadof devoting time and energy to isolated epochs.Only so could the teachings of history be understood ; only so could it be made really valuableto the student.Mr. French was followed by Dean Win. P.McKee, of the Frances Shimer Academy, whoseremarks follow :Every instructor in history will agree that thisis a living question.The field of history is vast ; the task and purpose of the pupils are various. On the otherhand the subject is full of interest and the material touches life closely, dealing with concreterealities.The question is ever present — what, out ofall this wealth of material, shall be selected forparticular emphasis ?In the matter of method the conclusionsdrawn from experience will vary with the individual. Each may speak for himself only. Thesepoints may be noted in passing :i. It is by all means desirable with our pupilsto use a text-book, and a book of rather generousproportions, so that samples of sources, abundant illustrations, references, and bibliographiesmay be included. 2. The library should be supplied with the bestand freshest matter for collateral reading. Thepupils should be sent to these books to supplement the text in topics of special interest andimportance. The main thing, however, shouldbe the text.3. Written tests should be given frequently. Apupil's ignorance of names, places, dates, and theconnection of events will often disclose itselfbetter when the work is written.4. The pupils should be required to preparepapers occasionally, on topics of peculiar interestand importance. In preparing these papers theymay be taught how to use indexes and tables ofcontents. They may even be taught, in a measure, to find the books in the library and get thematerial needed.Moreover, they should be required to enterreferences on the margins of the papers, givingthe authority for the more important statements.They will, by this means, be taught to compareauthorities with one another, and make a beginning in the application of reason and judgmentwhen authorities clash with one another. But inparticular they will learn that it is incumbent onthem to be able to give the basis on which ahopinion rests, and exactness will be encouraged.In connection with these points we may callattention also to this, namely, the use of correctEnglish should be insisted on in the teaching ofhistory.The pupil does not thoroughly understand thetext unless he is able to express it with clearnessand accuracy.The instructor in history has a great opportunity to furnish training in English with littleextra expenditure of time. This applies to bothoral and written work. The small expenditure oftime and labor necessary to secure this result willbe more than counterbalanced by the increasedaccuracy with which the pupil will do his work.I. To pass now to the way in which the material of history should be treated — the continuityof history should be emphasized.Strongly marked divisions are useful but dangerous. It may be that they are more dangerousthan they are useful. Unless the instructor isvery careful to warn the pupil, he is likely to maketoo much of the dates which are supposed tousher in new epochs. He is likely to get animpression that a wide chasm separates ancient,for example, from mediaeval and modern history.UNIVERSITY RECORD 231As a matter of fact no chasm is there ; the sixthcentury was made by the fifth, and grew out ofit and is meaningless apart from it ; just as thesixteenth century has its roots deep in thefifteenth, and even fourteenth.The American Revolution is a curious andmysterious phenomenon to the pupil who is ignorant of English history. To isolate it is to makea thorough understanding of it impossible.The same principle applies to all history. Itis scarcely too much to say that everything isconnected with everything else. Nothing is doneby magic. Cause and effect are found togetherhere, as elsewhere. Revolutions may seem tospring suddenly out of a surprised people. However, out of nothing, nothing comes, here, as inchemistry. These great movements are not assudden as they appear. The causes may beconcealed, but they are near, and are sufficient,and have been at work long in proportion as theresults are great. Every revolution involves andimplies preceding labor and struggle. Revolutions do not produce themselves. The pupilshould be taught from the beginning that in somereal sense events are related to one another.II. The prevalence and significance of moralissues should be emphasized in the teaching ofhistory.The Committee of Seven speak of the unbrokendominance of the Roman Catholic Church as themost characteristic feature of the later middleage.' We may admit this without passing any judgment whatever on the question whether thechurch stood for righteousness in this period, andso justified its claim to be Christian. Whether forgood or ill, or for both, the church made historythen, and it must be made prominent if we wouldunderstand the history.Moreover, as a matter of fact, moral issues arereally in the forefront, at least in many of theimportant periods of history. It is these moralissues which give the struggles of mankind significance. If history means anything whatever, wecertainly must take into account the aspirationwhich the best men of every period have had forsound and healthy morality. An influential section of society has been continually insisting thatjustice should be done.Even when wars have been waged out of puregreed the moral question is not effaced, becausethe second party in the conflict has representedthe right to resist injustice. If we eliminate the moral forces at work, andthe moral interests involved, we evacuate history,of its chief significance.III. We should emphasize the struggles for freedom, which make up so large a part of history.The age of Pericles in Greece is immortal,because in that age the ruling class of Athensachieved political and intellectual liberty. Wedo not speak, of course, of the whole people ashaving civil liberty or any other kind of liberty,because the Athenian democracy rested upon afoundation of slavery. Nevertheless, this age issignificant, because one class of people foundfreedom.He would be a rash man, of course, who wouldundertake to declare what the ultimate phase ofhuman progress is to be. As I take it, however,the average instructor in history believes thathuman progress is something more than progressin a circle. He believes that it is progressupward ; that is to say, the common man in theNineteenth Century has, through the struggles ofthe ages past, secured for himself a bettereconomic, political, intellectual and moral position than he occupied in earlier centuries. Thishas not been secured all at once. Religiousliberty was secured first, and along with it intellectual liberty. The dreadful struggles of the Sixteenth Century should be emphasized, not becauseof the struggles themselves, but because of theresults which were produced. These results areas widespread as civilization is today, and theyare beneficent. Whatever is omitted, the expansion of democracy should be emphasized. Thecommon man is in a better situation as regardsthe food he eats, and the house that shelters him,.and the clothes he wears, and the society intowhich he enters, and the books he reads, and theschools to which he sends his children, and thechurch in which he worships God, and the political rights by which he secures and maintains allthese other privileges than he has been in ages;past.Just what this man will do with the unparalleledriches now placed at his feet, will form a greattheme for the consideration of instructors in history in the generation to come.Miss Elizabeth Adams, of the Ray School, thenaddressed the conference on the teaching of history in the grade schools.Following Miss Adams, Miss Frances Knox,departmental reader in history at the University*232 UNIVERSITY RECORDdiscussed the work of the affiliated institutionsfrom the point of view of the University, makingvaluable suggestions in regard to the nature ofteaching history in the schools, and the characterof examinations. Discussion of the variouspapers followed.At the close of the conference a committee wasappointed to consider the report of the Committee of Seven. This committee will present itsconclusions at the meeting of the conference in1900. The members are Dean McKee, of FrancesShimer Academy ; Miss Una McMahon, of Kenwood Institute ; Dean M. L. Miller, of DearbornSeminary; Miss Frances Knox, of the University, and Miss Wilcox, of the Austin High School.In the Departmental Conference in Latin, after an address by Professor W. G. Hale, of the University, on " Howshould the Latin Grammar be used in*JSchools ? " the 'following paper was read by J. R. Nelson, of the!!John MarshalSchool, Chicago :In urging upon us the necessity of developingin our pupils a correct conception of the facts ofLatin grammar, Professor Hale has directed ourattention to a matter of vital importance, and Ibelieve that, were we to follow his advice, weshould find many matters of present difficultysimplified and the whole attitude of our youngpeople toward the language changed.The educated Roman used his language correctlybecause he had a true conception of the lawsgoverning it — a conception that, through constant practice, had become an instinct, guidinghim without conscious effort. And it is exactlythis instinct, or linguistic sense of fitness that weshould aim to develop, rather than to teach anycut and dried classification of laws arbitrarilymade by some modern grammarian. A rule ofgrammar is valuable only as a guide to practiceand, through practice, to a true conception of thelaw stated, and when the pupil has learned toexpress himself in accordance with this law, themere statement of it has lost its value for him.The only element in our work at all analogousto the self expression of the Roman boy or girl isfound in the translation of English into Latin.The importance of this work can hardly be overestimated, for it is not only the most natural andeffective method of developing through expression the pupil's conception of the law he is using, butit affords a wide opportunity for the developmentof personal judgment and independence of action.The traditional method of conducting prosecomposition, however, falls very far short ofrealizing its opportunities, and is open to seriouscriticism. A lesson has usually been assignedonce a week. It is prepared outside of class withthe aid of vocabulary, grammar, and parallel passage and is then brought to class and corrected.In the first place the pupil has an opportunityfor expressing himself too infrequently. Thelessons learned from the mistakes of one recitationare quite forgotten before the next, and fail, therefore, to work reform in the pupil's composition.Secondly, always having access to his vocabulary, grammar, and parallel passage, he neverlearns to depend on his own memory and individual judgment.Third, the text-book, being prepared for ahypothetical class, often fails utterly to meet thedifficulties of the class, or to arouse its interestor to develop its ability.I believe, therefore, that to be effective theprose composition should be a daily exercise inconnection with the work of translation. In thesecond place the exercise for translation should beprepared with reference to the needs of the particular class that is to use it, and should aim at asystematic development of their vocabulary and oftheir mastery of syntax. No two classes are at allequal in capacity, and it is fatal to interest and tothe development of the individual to impose onone class an exercise prepared to meet the needsof another. Each class has a right to personalhelp of the most definite sort. This would seemto add a new burden to the instructor, but I havefound that with a little direction the pupils themselves soon learn to write illustrative sentencesthat not only are much more difficult than thosein the average composition book, but have theadvantage of containing the constructions withwhich they find particular difficulty. The factthat these sentences are their own also adds anelement of personal interest that is quite stimulating to effort in the work. In the third place, Ibelieve that the preparation for the recitation inprose composition should be different from thatso long and so commonly used. Before comingto recitation the pupil should familiarize himselfwith the vocabulary of the passage upon whichthe composition is based, and should studyUNIVERSITY RECORD 233the constructions to be used. Thus equipped heshould be required to write in class a sentencewhich he has not before seen. In this way helearns independence of his grammar and vocabulary and discovers that he can think for himselfand can depend on his own judgment. Thiswork is practically sight translation in prose composition.During the past four or five years, I have foundthe following plan helpful. In the review chapterfor the day, I have the pupils underline for studynew words and idioms of importance and assigncertain constructions for special study. Three orfour pupils are appointed to prepare illustrativesentences based on this review passage and containing the constructions assigned. At the beginning of the recitation these sentences are given topupils who .have not before seen them and arewritten upon the board. Meanwhile, the pupilsat their seats write from dictation a number ofsentences illustrating the constructions we arestudying. These are corrected and discusseduntil the work at the board is finished. As onlythe Latin appears on the board, an opportunity isafforded for sight translation and someone whohas not before seen the English sentence is askedto translate. The pupils make the correctionsand everyone is encouraged to ask for the explanation of his difficulties.Before coming here today I had my pupils writepapers for me in answer to the following question :"From what part of your work do you learnthe most Latin grammar?" I read about 155papers, and with but thirteen exceptions, thepupils were emphatic in declaring their enjoymentand appreciation of Latin prose composition.What more conclusive evidence can I give thatour young people themselves long to be freedfrom their bondage to vocabulary and grammarand to think and to act for themselves ?In the Departmental Conference in German, Dr. P. O.Kern, of the University, read the following paper on thesubject, " Uber die Versuche einer ausgleichenden Regelungder Aussprache des Neuhochdeutschen."Of the business transacted during the session, two pointsdeserve special mention: 1) In deference to the wishes olthe teachers of the secondary schools the Department withdrew Von Sybel's Erhebung Ettropd's gegen Napoleon fromthe list required for second-year reading. Any one ofNichols' three selections, Karl der Grosse nebst zwei andernBildern aus dem Mittelalter, by Freytag (Holt & Co.), was adopted in its stead. 2) The choice of the "Report of theCommittee on Modern Languages " as subject for discussion at the conference for 1900. Copies of the same weredistributed.The reading of the paper was followed by a spirited discussion in German.Obgleich die Deutschen seit langem eine ge-meinsame Schriftsprache besitzen, fehlt ihnen eineinheitlich gesprochenes Deutsch. Wir sind oftnicht im Stande, das engere Vaterland des gebil-deten Schreibers aus seiner Sprache zu erkennen;trate derselbe vor uns hin, wiirde seine Stammes-zugehorigkeit aus den ersten Worten erhellen.Eine ebenso bekannte Tatsache istes, dass dieSchule die Schriftsprache von der letzten bis zurersten Klasse lehrt ; fur die Aussprache existiertaber nicht einmal ein Schulbuch ; sie ist vogel-frei. Ja, das zu lernende Schriftdeutsch wirdoft von den es Lehrenden an derselben Schuleverschieden ausgesprochen. Die Nachteile einessolchen Zustandes liegen auf der Hand. Vielleichtmehr als irgend Jemand empfindet der Lehrerdes Deutschen im Auslande das Fehlen einerNorm. Das Verlangen nach einer einheitlichenAussprache ist uberhaupt nur die Consequenzeiner einheitlichen Schriftsprache. Nur wer sichgegen letztere, d. h. gegen eine vollzogeneTatsache verschliesst, kann sich gegen ersterewenden. Un'd welches konnten, von den Vor-ziigen zu schweigen, die nachteiligen Folgen derallgemeinen Schriftsprache sein ? Sicherlichnicht eine Erdriickung der Individualist der Dia-lekte, denn sie leben noch immer. Nicht eineSprachverdrangung ist durch das Auftreten derSchriftsprache eingetreten, sondern ein Sprachen-dualismus. Ein einheitlich gesprochenes Deutschware dann das gleichmassige Sprechen einerzweiten Sprache, derjenigen der Gebildeten, nebender Volkssprache des Dialekts. Es handelt sichalso um kein „entweder — odei%" und man kanndaher, trotz der Uberzeugung von der Notwen-digkeit einer allgemein geschriebenen und ge-sprochenen Sprache, wie jetzt im Interesse bes-seren Unterrichts in Deutschland versucht wird,die Dialekte sehr wohl mehr in die Unterklassender Schulen ziehen. Der Zweck deutschen Ele-mentarunterrichts in den Schulen besonders Nie-derdeutschlands muss sein, die einen Dialektsprechenden Schiiler in das Neuhochdeutsch ein-zufiihren. Dies kann aber nur durch Anknupfenan die ihnen bekannte Sprache geschehen. Inrichtiger Erkenntnis schimpfte der Dorfschul-234 UNIVERSITY RECORDmeister denn auch von jeher seine Jungen in derheimischen Sprechweise aus. Wie jener fur seinenkleinen Kreis Kenntnis des Dialekts, haben diesefur die weitern Lebenskreise solche der Allge-meinsprache notig. Der einzige Nachteil beiderSprecharten erwachst aus der Unbekanntschaftmit ihnen.Die einheitliche Sprache ist aber nicht voll-kommen, so lange sich ihre Einheit nur auf dieSchrift bezieht. Ihre jetzige Aussprache ist eineMischung. Einmal giebt man den Buchstabendialektischen Lautwert, was nur zu Verschieden-heit, aber nicht zu Unsinn, wie das damit ver-quickte Verfahren, fuhrt. Letzteres beruht aufder irrtiimlichen Voraussetzung, dass die deutscheSchreibweise phonetisch sei, und man einfachsprechen miisse wie geschrieben wird. In dersich so ergebenden Verwirrung weiss Niemandmehr, woran er ist. Sie fuhrt zu einer Verwil-derung der Form, das formale Sprachgefuhl gehtimmer mehr zuriick, Abhulfe ist dringend ge-boten.Wenn nun eine gleiche Aussprache allerGebil-deten einer Nation erwiinscht ist, ist sie abermoglich ? In den andern civilisierten Landernscheint sie nicht zu existieren. Man konnte zuglauben geneigt sein, dass, wenn irgend ein Land,Frankreich mit seiner Akademie sie habe, und ichcitiere daher Professor Tobler aus Herrigs Archiv,Vol. 100, p. 217. Eine Kritik eines phonetischenWorterbuches der franzosischen Sprache schliesstderselbe da folgendermassen : „ Wertvoller ist dieUbersicht der hauptsachlichsten Abweichungen imAussprechen, die man bei denen wahrnimmt, dierichtig franzosisch zu sprechen gewillt sind undglauben. Wer es nicht schon wusste, kann hier-aus lernen, wie weit man auch in Frankreich, jaselbst in Paris, davon entfernt ist, die Landes-sprache, die man von mundartlicher Beeinflussungfrei zu halten glaubt, ubereinstimmend zusprechen."Was aber noch nicht erreicht ist, ist deshalb zuthun nicht unmoglich. Als die Frage der Aussprache zuerst dem allgemeinen deutschenSprachvereine vorgelegt wurde, fielen Ausserun-gen wie : „ Der Danziger wird nie so sprechenwie der Strassburger," oder : „ Mit dem bestenWillen konnte ich meine Aussprache nichtandern." Allein die Danziger und die Strassburger wie die Aussprachen aller Gebildeten nahernsich einander schon jetzt, sie streben schon langeunbewusst demselben Ziele zu : Ablegung der* landschaftlichen Eigentiimlichkeiten. Der Baiermag zum Baiern bairisches Hochdeutsch sprechen,wie er bairisches Oberdeutsch mit ihm spricht ;spricht er mit dem Norddeutschen Hochdeutsch,so kommt er ihm naturgemass entgegen undschleift, so viel er kann, specifisch Bairisches abwie jener specifisch Norddeutches. Wer je Ge-bildete der russischen Ostseeprovinzen oderKinder gebildeter, auf fremdem Sprachgebietelebender Deutschen gehort hat, kurz gesprochenesSchriftddeutsch, dem kein Dialekt zur Seite stand,wird nicht an die Unmoglichkeit dialektfreierAussprache glauben.Die Formulierung einer alldeutschen Muster-aussprache bedeutet somit nicht ein Vorschreibenneuer Ausspracheregeln, sondern ist nur eine in-telligente Leitung, Regelung und Beschleunigungeiner schon vorhandenen natiirlichen Sprach-bewegung.Den ersten Anstoss zu einer praktischen L6-sung gab Professor Erbe mit seinen 4 mal 6 Satzenals Grundlage fur eine Verstandigung iiber dieAussprache des Deutschen nebst 6 mittel- odersiiddeutschen Redeweisen, die zu dulden seindtirften, in Passy's Maitre fihonetique, Paris, September 1896. Er stellt nicht gleich eine Muster-aussprache des Deutschen mit alien Einzelheitenauf, zeigt aber, auf welchem Wege die Einigungzu erreichen ist, indem er zunachst diejenigenPunkte zusammenstellt, die er schon jetzt derSchule als bindende Vorschriften empfehlen zukonnen glaubt. Das sind seine 4X6 Satze.Der allgemeine deutsche Sprachverein nahm imfolgenden Jahre die Aussprache in das Programmseiner Zeitschrift auf. Dadurch wurde die Discussion vor das richtige Publikum gebracht ; dieeinzelnen Zweigvereine konnen iiber die Erbe-schen Satze in 190 verschiedenen Orten des deutschen Sprachgebiets abstimmen. Die erzieltenResultate konnen von dem Gesammtvorstandredigiert, vervielfaltigt und verbreitet werden.Dadurch ist ein solider Kern zu weiterer An-krystallisation gewonnen. Von Jahr zu Jahr werden sich dann die festen Punkte mehren ; dieArbeit wird festgesetzt, bis man sich Schritt furSchritt fiber alle strittigen Punkte geeinigt hat.Aus Erbe's Einleitung hebe ich hervor : „ Grundlage einheitlicher Aussprache muss die Schriftsprache bleiben." ,,DieVerwilderung der deutschenAussprache greift seuchenartig um sich." ,,Es istdie allerhochste Zeit, dass die Schule sich endlichihrer Pflicht gegeniiber der miindlichen DarUNIVERSITY RECORD 235stellung der Muttersprache bewusst werde." „ Ob-wohl eine Einigung jetzt noch nicht moglich, isteine Zusammenfassung selbst der Punkte, die inder Aussprache verschieden, neben denen derUbereinstimmung von Wichtigkeit." ProfessorVietoraus Marburg und Pfarrer Spieser, Vorstanddes Vereins fur vereinfachte Rechtschreibung, er-kennen die ersten vierundzwanzig von Erbe'sPunkten als feststehend an. Eine Besprechungder Arbeit liefert Th. Gartner in der Zeitschriftfur den deutschen Unterricht, 1897, pp. 274 ff.Im Folgenden sollen unerwahnt bleiben Satze,die als selbstverstandlich iiberall angenommenwerden miissen, wie :I, 4 : Man unterscheide zwischen i und u, e und0, ei und eu, etc.I, 5 : Langes 0 ist geschlossen,denn Nichtunterscheiden zwischen gerundetenund einfachen Vokalen ist nur dialektisch, langesoffenes 0 wie im Franzosischen or (Gold) nurschwabisch.A. Vokale.1. DasNaseln derselben, auch vor den Nasalen,ist tadelnswert.Nach Vietor kommen Nasalvokale in deutschenWortern nur in mittel- und suddeutschen Dialek-ten vor. Gartner halt sie aus seiner Sprache(dem Oestreichischen) fiir schwer ausrottbar.Durch die ganze Rede ziehen sie sich oft imPredigertone : Vater, Heiliger Geist.2. Vor Doppelkonsonanz ist kurzer Vokal vor-zuziehen, ausser wenn die Lange historisch be-griindet ist oder eine erdriickende Mehrheit fiirsich hat.Letztere Bestimmung hat bisher nur theoreti-schen Wert, fiir ihre Verwendung fehlt noch dienotige Statistik. Professor Vietor hat Fragebogenausgeschickt ; bis diese gesammelt und bearbeitet,miissen viele der uns hier beschaftigenden Fragenunbeantwortet bleiben. Beispiele werden sein :Obst, Probst, Vogt, denn sie werden trotz mhd.Kiirze fast allgemein lang gesprochen.Erbe's Beispiele sind : Bart, mhd. ahd. bart ;Herde, mhd. herte, ahd. herta; aber : Garten, mhd.garte, ahd. garto; Most, mhd. ahd. most.Die Dehnung ist allerdings in geschlossenerSylbe und vor Doppelkonsonanz im Mhd. nichtdie Regel. Wo sich denn heute Lange findet, istsie die Ausnahme, miisste aber dann dem Laienauseinandergesetzt werden, was nicht grade ein-fach ist. Werfen wir aus Erbe's Beispielen Most als regelrecht heraus, so konnen wir sagen, dasssich kurzer Vokal im Allgemeinen vor r behaup-tet, z. B. arg, bergen, herbe, scharf. Yoxr-\-Dentacaber werden namentlich a und e, seltener andereVokale, oft gedehnt, obgleich die Dehnung nichtallgemein anerkannt ist : Art, Bart, zart, Scharteneben Scharte, Schwarte neben Schwarte, Erdeneben Erde etc. Freilich kurz : hart, Garten,Karte, warten, Ferse, Gerte, Herz, Scherz, Kirscheetc. Paul in Paul and Braune's Beitrdgen, IX, 119,sucht das Schwanken durch die Annahme zu er-klaren, dass lautgesetzlich der lange Vokal nur inden flektierten Formen eingetreten sei. Ur-spriinglich habe es hart — harte, zart — zarte ge-heissen, und dann sei durch Ausgleich bald derlange, bald der kurze Vokal zur Geltung gekom-men. Willmanns, Deutsche Grammatik, Lautlehre,§ 247, wendet sich gegen diese Erklarung, indemer sich auf Ableitungen stiitzt wie : drztlich nebenArzt, fertig — Fdhrt, geburtig — Geburt. Von denobengenannten Wortern giebt Siebs, Buhnenaussprache :x Art, Bart, zart, Schwarte, Arzt, Erde,Herde, Geburt mit langem Vokal ; mit kurzem :Garten, hart, Karte, Scharte, warten, arg, scharf,bergen, herbe, Ferse, Gerte, Herz, Scherz.3. In biegbaren Wortern (mit Ausnahme derstarken und unregelmassigen Zeitworter) behalteder Vokal der Stammsylbe in alien Biegungs-formen dieselbe Dauer.2Man spreche Tag (nicht Tag wie im Nord-deutschen) wegen Tdges, Tage, Tagen; sagst(nicht sagst wie im Suddeutschen) wegen sage,sagen, etc.Wie die Beispiele zeigen, soil die haufigst vor-1 Einen andern Weg als Professor Erbe zur Losung deruns beschaftigenden Frage schlagt, wie schon der Titel an-deutet, die von Professor Siebs in Greifswald herausgegebeneDeutsche Buhnenaussprache (Berlin, Koln, Leipzig : Verlagvon Albert Ahn, 1898) ein. Das Buch enthalt die Ergeb-nisse der zwischen Vertretern der deutschen Buhnen undgeimanistischer Wissenschaft im April 1898 geflogenen Be-ratungen. Es geht von dem auf der 44. Versammlungdeutscher Philologen und Schulmanner zu Dresden gutge-heissenen Satze aus, dass die im ernsten Drama iiblicheBuhnenaussprache als Norm fiir die deutsche Aussprachegelte. Diese Aussprache ist aber nicht im ganzen deutschenSprachgebiete vollig dieselbe noch, vom wissenschaftlichenStancfpunkte betrachtet, in jeder Beziehung zu billigen. ZurErzielung einer einheitlichen Aussprache des Deutschenmiissen daher die Unterschiede zwischen den Buhnen desober-, mittel- und niederdeutschen Sprachgebiets ausgegli-chen und die Unterschiede in der Aussprache der einzelnenLaute, die erst willkiirlich, durch eine Lesung der Schreibung,geschaffen sind, als unwissenschaftlich beseitigt werden.2 Ebenso Siebs, Buhnenaussprache, 20, VIII.236 UNIVERSITY RECORDkommende Quantitat durchgefiihrt werden.Keine lange Nebenformen haben in der Spracheder Gebildeten : Stadt, Schmied, grob. Sie sindvereinzelte Ausnahmen und wiirden sich leichtder Mehrheit anschliessen.B. Verschlusslaute.i. b, d, g sind im An- und Inlaut streng vonp, t, k zu unterscheiden ; stimmhafte Ausspracheder ersteren ist anzustreben.Stellt man sich auf den Majoritatsstandpunkt,so ist dies fiir die Aussprache hier heikel. Dennin Siid- und Mitteldeutschland gilt fiir die stimmhafte Media die stimmlose Media, besser schwacheTenuis oder stimmlose Lenis genannt. Sie unter-scheidet sich von den daselbst natiirlich auchohne Stimmton gesprochenen p, t, k nur durchgeringeren Atemdruck. Von wie vielen Deutschen anlautende stimmhafte Media gesprochenwird, ist noch festzustellen.2. g im Anlaut soil nicht wie / lauten, nochwie ch. Auch im Inlaut ist es nicht mit ch zu ver-wechseln.Also : Garten, nicht : Jarten, Charten. Eigennicht = eichen, Fluge nicht = Fluche.Bis zur Aussprache des inlautenden g als Ver-schlusslaut geht er also nicht.3. pf darf nicht wie / gesprochen werden.Die deutsche Affrikata pf ist ein labiodentalerExplosivlaut -f- Spirans. Hier haben wir so rechtein Beispiel fiir den Einfluss von Schreibung aufAussprache : wer^/"nicht nur spirantisch sprechenwill, spricht gewohnlich, dem Auge folgend,4. Iz, mpf nz sind nicht wie Is, mf, ns zusprechen.Man untersheide: Faltz — Falls, Sumpfe —Symphonie, ganz — Gans.C. Reibelaute.1. Sp, st im Anlaute spreche man mit erweich-tem s.Uber diese Lautverbindungen spricht Dr.August Grabow, Schulrat in Bromberg, in den Mit-teilungen des deutschen Sprachvereins, VI, 21-33,rezensiert von Gartner in der Zeitschrift fftr dendeutschen Unterricht, 1896, pp. 587 ff. Letztererwendet sich zwar gegen Grabow's Beweisfuhrung,nimmt aber dessen Resultate an. Schp, scht werden von 42 Millionen im deutschen Reiche, dazuvon alien Schweizern und Oestreichern, d. h. vonweitern 12 Millionen gesprochen. Dies ist be- sonders lehrreich fiir Hannoveraner und solcheAmerikaner, denen deren Deutsch als Richt-schnur dient. In der Aussprache schp, scht sindauch alle Buhnen einig,1 und die nordwest-deutsche Aussprache ist auch von diesem Stand-punkte aus als mundartliche Eigenart anzusehen.'2. h werde nur im Anlaute und im Inlaute vorbetontem Vokale (die Buhnenaussprache in deut-licherer Fassung : nur vor vollstimmigem Vokale)ausgesprochen.Mit h : Henne, oho, Oheim, Uhu.In alien anderen Fallen ist das h der Schreibungals nicht vorhanden zu betrachten !Ohne h: Ruhe, Ehe, Wehe, sehen, da das h hiererst spat und irrtumlich eingefuhrt ist. Mhd.ruowe, ahd. ruowa, mhd. e, ewe, ahd. ewa, mhd.ahd. we ; in Mitteldeutschland sprach man sen,in Oberdeutschland sprach und schrieb mansehen, dann wurde das oberdeutsche Schriftbildvon Mitteldeutschland angenommen zu einer Zeit,wo h bloss noch als Dehnungszeichen empfundenward.D. Liquide.1. Das auslautende n der Vorworter und dasvor / und // stehende n diirfe nicht dem folgen-den Konsonanten angeglichen werden.Also : anbefehlen,^\ { ambefehlen,ankommen, angkommen,x,. x i- mit «> nicht < ,... xfunf r \fumf,Vernunft, I Vernum{p)ft2. Stammhaftes ng laute in deutschen Worternwie velares n. Ng ist ein einheitlicher Laut, keineLautverbindung.Man spreche a) lang, langer wie im englischenlong, singer, aber b) un-gern, An-geld.b) ist zweifellos richtig. Bei a) will Grabowa. a. O. unterschieden haben: i)ng=ngk\mAuslaut ; sprich Dingk, langk (longus), jungk,2) ng — blosses velares n, wenn darauf ein Flexions— e folgt oder doch erganzt werden kann, z. B.Dinge, lange, lang (diu), das Adverb streng, derKonjunktiv gieng\ Die Buhnenaussprache, § XVI,wendet sich gegen Grabow's 1) : auslautendes ngdiirfe nicht mit k = Schluss gesprochen werden.3. r ist als Zungenspitzen-r zu sprechen.Also weder als Zapfen-r, noch spirantisch nochvokalisch.Dieselbe Forderung stellt die Buhnenaussprache,1 Siebs, Buhnenaussprache , § XXI.UNIVERSITY RECORD 23T§ XIL Ob mit Erfolg, ist bei der weiten Verbrei-tung des uvularen r mehr als zweifelhaft. Es istdurchaus nicht auf die grosseren Stadte beschrankt,sondern herrseht auch in Dialekten.Die letzten 6 Satze sind 6 mittel- oder sud-deutsche redeweisen, die nach erbe zudulden sein durften.i. In- und auslautendes g ist als Verschlusslautzu sprechen.Vergleiche dazu : Grabow, „ Die mustergultigeAussprache des g" in den Mitteilungen des Deutschen Sprachvereins, VI, 137-164; Th. Gartnera. a. O. und die Buhnenaussprache, pp. 60 ff.,§ XXVIII. Letztere giebt fiir die Aussprachedes g folgende Regeln :1. Stimmhafter Verschlusslaut is fiir g im Syl-benanlaut zu sprechen.2. Erscheint g im Sylbenauslaut nach langemVokal oder vor Konsonant nach langem Vokaloder nach kurzem Vokal -f r, I, so ist ein schwacheingesetztes aber stark abgesetztes und gehauchtesk zu sprechen. Dies erreicht man, indem manden Vokal (oder r, I) decrescendo spricht, ihnlangsam verklingen lasst and dann erst das k ein-setzt. Wie unterscheiden sich demnach Worterwie Spuk und trug in der Aussprache ? Beiersterem ist Einsatz und Absatz stark, bei letz-terem der Einsatz schwach und der Absatz stark.3. Fiir die Endung ig gelten besondere Regeln :a) vor Vokal wird dasselbe nach 1) als stimmhafter Verschlusslaut gesprochen.b) im Sylbenschluss und vor Konsonant ist esspirantisch, ausgenommen vor der Endung Itch,2. Die aus den mhd. einfachen Vokalen t, u,iu entstandenen nhd. Diphthonge ei, au, eu, diein der Schriftsprache mit den aus den mhd.Diphthongen ei, ou, ou entwickelten zusammen-fielen, werden von den meisten Mundarten nochheute auseinandergehalten.Mhd. dri, nhd. drei ; mhd. zwei, nhd. zwei.Mhd. ruchwerc, nhd. Rauchwerk ; mhd. rouch,nhd. Rauch. Mhd. hiute, nhd. heute ; mhd.bourne, nhd. Bdume.Erbe will diesen Unterschied auch in derSchriftsprache durch grossere Offenheit oder Ge-schlossenheit des ersten Teils des Diphthongs ge-wahrt wissen.3. Innerhalb der Worter und zwischen eng ver-bundenen Wortern findet unbeschrankte Bindungstatt : Verein, erinnern, Tag und Nacht Die Buhnenaussprache p. 70 warnt vor demUberziehen zwischen verschiedenen Wortern. Be-rechtigt sei ein solches nur bei Apostrophierung,,z. B. ich grab' es aus, aber : ins Grab / es leg en.The Departmental Conference in Mathematicswas attended by fifty representatives from thirtydifferent schools,The topic considered was " The HeuristicMethod of Teaching Geometry." Two invitedspeakers presented papers setting forth the reasonsfor and against the general adoption of thismethod of teaching geometry.The paper by Mr. L. D. Harvey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Wisconsin, infavor of heuristic teaching, was in substance asfollows :The leading purpose in teaching geometry in the secondary schools may be summed up in the one word, discipline.This discipline comes through training for power and skillin three directions : first, in the exeicise of the imagination;second, in determining and establishing in logical orderthe essential relations in the process of reasoning to a definite conclusion ; third, in stating in order, correctly, concisely,.and elegantly the steps and conclusions in a process of reasoning. If the discipline resulting from the training in thesethree lines is not sufficient to justify the teaching of geometry in the secondary schools, then I believe there is no adequate justification for giving it a place in those schools.Three distinct modes of teaching geometry may be employed ; a combination of two or all of these modes mayalso be employed.First. A text-book containing formal and completedemonstrations of the geometrical propositions may beplaced in the hands of the pupil, and he be required to learnthe propositions, so mastering them as to understand thereasoning employed by the author.Second. The proposition to be demonstrated may begiven to the pupil, and the pupil, having mastered the fundamental truths which must be employed in the demonstration, may be required to work out the demonstration forhimself.Third. There may be placed before the pupil a set of general conditions, and he required, by a process of discovery inestablishing relations among these conditions, to reach a.general conclusion which may be formulated as a geometrical proposition. The first of these modes of procedure isthe one perhaps most commonly employed. The second, orthe heuristic method, is one employed as the chief mode of238 UNIVERSITY RECORDprocedure by an increasing number of teachers each year.The third is the process by which geometrical science hasbeen developed, and is employed in the secondary schoolsin connection with one of the other modes only.Modern text-books which give the demonstrations ofpropositions require a considerable amount of original workin connection with the mastery of the demonstrations givenin the text. The learning of a demonstration has a certainvalue for the learner. He comes to know the logical orderand form of a rigid geometrical demonstration. When anexisting relation has been shown in the demonstration, hemay come to see its truth, not only in the particular instance,but its generality as well. I say he may see this. Whetherhe does or not will depend upon the quality of the teaching.He gains certain power of concentration of attention in hiseffort to master the demonstration given. The demandsmade upon him for reasoning are of the lightest. He islearning the form of reasoning given by the author, and maysee the truth of that reasoning. The reasoning is done forhim. The strongest demand that can be made upon him isthat he shall recognize its correctness. Whenever he is compelled to take up the original work which may accompanythe demonstrated propositions in more or less close relation,he is then required not to recognize relations stated by theauthor, but to determine them for himself, and to state themin proper order and form. The increasing demands fororiginal work shown in the later text-books, which stilladhere to the plan of giving formal demonstrations, is arecognition of the fact that to secure the highest resultsthe pupil must learn to reason, rather than to learn reasons tThe one is training in reasoning, the other is training inmemorizing and verifying another's reasons. The onebrings increasing power in original work, the other givesbut little such power.When the pupil is ready to begin the work of formaldemonstration of geometrical propositions, if we are to securethe best results, he should be trained from the outset to discover the relations which must be established in order toreach the final conclusion. The sooner he is compelledto depend upon his own resources, and to free himselffrom slavery to the formal demonstrations of the text,the sooner will be developed the power called for in thefirst and second purposes stated above. He needs at thevery outset of his work in formal demonstration of propositions, to use the text for the purpose of mastering the orderand form of a rigid geometrical demonstration, but for no•other purpose. In order to realize the third purpose statedabove, he must be trained to put his reasoning into as goodform, and to arrange it in as logical an order, as is shownin the text. At the outset the most of the work should bedone during the recitation period and under the eye anddirection of the teacher. It is rare that the pupil is trainedby the teacher in the proper mode of procedure. Before the pupil is at all prepared to begin the work offormal demonstration, he should have a course of trainingfor the purpose of mastering the fundamental maxims, definitions, and truths which he will employ in the work ofdemonstration. A course of work in geometrical drawing,constructive in nature, should be given to acquaint him withthe use of the protractor, dividers, and ruler, and to fix inhis mind the truths which he will subsequently have toemploy, and also the propositions which later on he will berequired to demonstrate. If the different propositions relating to lines, angles, triangles, and quadrilaterals are, at thisstage, shown experimentally to be true in given instancesby actual measurement and construction, and are thoroughlyfixed in the mind, no demands are made upon the studentwhen he comes to the matter of demonstration, other thanthat he employ the knowledge already gained in the processof demonstration. His mind is left entirely free to carry onthe reasoning process. He is not hampered because at acritical point in this process of reasoning he fails to remember the fundamental truth which is needed for the next step.In order to employ the heuristic method satisfactorily, theteacher must not only have a thorough mastery of the subject-matter, but he must know well the nature of the pupil'smind, the rational order of procedure in the mental processto be employed, the points of difficulty in the pupil's progress with the demonstration. He must bear in mind thathe may so question and suggest as to leave the pupil littleto do ; in other words, that he is supplying the place of theformal demonstration given in the text-book. The highestart of the teacher is shown here in giving only those suggestions and asking only those questions which are absolutelyessential to enable the pupil to make progress for himself.Each step in the solution is reaching a conclusion. At theoutset, if the pupil be asked if he can go from his presentstage of knowledge to the first conclusion, something definiteis set for him to do. The relations by which the conclusionis to be reached are not given him, he is to discover those.In a little time, fewer of these intermediate conclusions willneed to be presented by the teacher, the pupil will employthe third mode set forth above for himself. Starting with.known conditions, he will discover new relations andformulate a conclusion new to him, and thus, step by step,he will reach the final conclusion formulated in theproposition.Experience has shown that an ordinary class of high-school students employing the heuristic method, may masterthe work ordinarily done in plane and solid geometry inone year. It has also shown that this method is one whichbrings the pupil to the highest degree of satisfaction in hiswork, which gives to him the greatest mental growth in thedirections indicated in the purposes stated above. It givesthe pupils confidence in their own ability to work out ademonstration for a new proposition without aid fromUNIVERSITY RECORD 239teacher or text. It enables them to face an examination ortest without worry or cramming. It has demonstrated thatstudents who, up to the time of beginning this work ingeometry, have shown the greatest weakness in mathematicsare by this process stimulated to a phase of intellectualactivity not hitherto reached, and that such students,unpromising at the outset, have, before the end of the year,shown a power of independent reasoning equal to the bestin the class. That power has manifested itself in subsequentwork, both in a review of the principles of arithmetic, andin higher algebra, and in power to master these subjectswith the greatest ease. Experience has also demonstratedthat pupils in the eighth grade maybe taught by this methodmost satisfactorily. For several years I have seen this workcarried on for a half year in the eighth grade, the first tenweeks being given to the work preparatory to the formaldemonstration, chiefly in geometrical drawing and concreteconstructive work. The second ten weeks the pupils wereset to the work of demonstrating the propositions, the truthof which had previously been shown in special cases byexperiment and measurement. After a few days' work withthe text giving formal demonstrations for the purpose beforestated, of fixing the form and order of a geometrical demonstration, the books were taken away from the pupils, andsubsequent work was done without any other aid than thatafforded by the teacher, and was done chiefly during therecitation period. These pupils developed a power andfacility in demonstration which would be somewhat surprising to those who have not seen or tested it. Their subsequent work in the high school in this subject gave evidenceof the high value of this eighth-grade study of the subject.It may be said that the ordinary teacher cannot do this worksuccessfully. I have tested the power of teachers in thisdirection, having this work done by the regular gradeteacher, having it done by student teachers whose onlyexperience has been in primary work, and by others whohad had no experience in teaching except a small amount ofpractice work in the normal school. In every case the workwas successful. The work was, of course, outlined for theseteachers. The method to be pursued was discussed withthem, and the work was . done under supervision, as otherwork should be done.If the purposes stated at the beginning are correct, it mustbe evident that the heuristic method is the one which mustbe productive of the best results, other things being equal.The truth of this proposition seems to be clear from apedagogical standpoint. It is equally clear to me from thestandpoint both of personal experience and observation. Apoor teacher who has no ambition to be anything but a poorteacher, will not do well with this method, nor with anyother. With a text-book giving demonstrations to bememorized, the pupils will learn something, but they willlearn it chiefly in spite of the teacher. The value of what they learn is small, and not commensurate with the time putupon the subject. If the class be too large, no good workcan be done, either by the heuristic method, or by any othermethod. The teacher who carefully, patiently, and persistently seeks to employ this method will succeed. Successcomes nowhere in teaching without care, patience, andpersistence.The paper by Mr. Henry L. Coar, Instructorin Mathematics in the University of Illinois, giving the practical objections to the heuristic teaching of geometry was as follows :When we come to examine carefully the heuristic methodof teaching geometry, we have two sides of the question toconsider, the theoretical and the practical side. There islittle doubt but that whatever a student finds out for himself will become his mental property much sooner than anything that has simply been told him. From this point ofview, then, it would seem as if the heuristic method ingeometry would be the panacea for all mathematical ills,for the method can be extended to any branch of mathematics. But a careful examination of the actual conditionsthat confront us will cause us to modify the above statementmaterially. In view of these conditions I believe that, atleast for the present, the use of a text-book, containingclear-cut proofs, will prove of greater advantage in teachinggeometry and be more productive of results than theheuristic method, though I do not say that the presentmethod is an ideal one. The conditions that confront us inthe schools are not of such a nature that any sweepingchange in methods will bring about better results in mathematical teaching. On the contrary, we can hope for thesebetter results only as a consequence of changing conditions.I shall, therefore, point out the practical difficulties whichoppose the general introduction of the heuristic method ofteaching geometry, though I shall also indicate that themethod has a place in the teaching of geometry, as well asof mathematics in general.Referring to the well-known example from Plato's" Meno," we see one danger that lurks in the employmentof the heuristic method. In this example Socrates frameshis questions in such a way that the answer is put into themouth of the slave. The reasoning throughout is that ofSocrates and not of the slave, and we can feel certain that theslave did not learn much geometry. I am very certain thata general introduction of the method would lead exactly tosuch results, the teacher would give the reasoning in anindirect way, and the student would himself do comparatively little work. I have in mind a little work on themethod in question, in which 65 pages are devoted toillustrations from actual class-work, and in this the questionsput into the mouth of the teacher in many cases imply the240 UNIVERSITY RECORDanswers directly. Many teachers undoubtedly are able toavoid this pitfall, but a much larger number would just ascertainly fall into it.This brings me to one of the most important objections toany general introduction of the method. It is to be foundin the answer to the question : "Are our teachers of mathematics equipped to use the method ? " In order to teachgeometry as it should be taught, more is necessary than theknowledge of the formal proofs of a certain set of theorems.The spirit of the subject should be mastered and its relationsto other subjects should be known. The teacher shouldhave a very clear insight into the four or five principlesupon which the proofs of probably nine tenths of thetheorems of geometry rest. He should be able to resolvethe proof into its final elements, so that he can tell that thisproof depends ultimately upon proving the equality of certain lines or angles, and that one upon the similarity of certain figures, etc. This power of analysis is an absoluteessential to the teacher of mathematics and it should be hisaim to teach underlying principles rather than a mass ofproofs and theorems. In order to do this he must have abroad view of his subject ; he should be familiar with themore modern subjects, as for example the properties of thecomplete square and a harmonic ratio, and so on. Toaccomplish this, his preparation should have embraced as anabsolute essential a good course on analytic geometry, whilesome knowledge of the Calculus and the history of mathematics would be a desideratum.Undoubtedly many of our teachers in the larger and better schools have had such training, but in our smaller schoolsthis is seldom the case. While due attention is paid to acandidate's knowledge of English, the sciences, etc., theauthorities are too prone to believe that anyone who hasstudied geometry or algebra at all can teach these branches.And so it happens that the various branches of mathematics are divided up among the teachers of other subjects,or if there is a special teacher of mathematics, it is someonewho can be obtained at a small salary. Such teachers canhave but little insight into the subject, but they can teach abook after a fashion and instill into the students a certainroutine knowledge of the subject. Should they, however,attempt to use the heuristic method, they would make a dismal failure.A second question to consider is that of time. In orderthat the method should prove a success, the pupil must notonly study out his proofs, but he must actually work themout in writing. This is necessary for several reasons. Inthe first place, we must remember that he either has no textbook at all, or, if he has one* it is to contain no proofs. Inorder, then, to fix the subject-matter he must elaborate hisown text. This will involve a very large amount of writing.For, after the proof has thus been worked out, it must becorrected and, probably, rewritten. This is necessary if we are not to court the danger that the students fall into carelesshabits of expression. It would thus seem as if the student-would be obliged, under these conditions, to give more thanits due share of time to the subject of geometry. On theother hand, all this written work will have to be correctedby the teacher, and, where there are large classes, this is a.physical impossibility. It is, therefore, out of the question.to use the method in large classes, or in case the teacher has-several classes in geometry. Only small classes can be thus-handled, and then there is danger of overcrowding the students with work.There is also danger that students who are not conscientious go to other books for the proofs. In this case theywould not only receive little benefit, but positive harm wouldbe done them.One very strong objection to the method is that, under thepresent conditions, it cannot do what its advocates claim forit. To be sure, it might eliminate memorizing in one senseof the word, but the bane of mathematical teaching is not tobe found so much in memorizing as in the routine characterof the work done. This is true for all subjects, from arithmetic up. Give a student something he can do by some cutand dried method, or by some formula, and he is happy.But ask him to get behind the formula at the living truth itembodies, and to show how the problem in question is related to that truth, and he is dumfounded. This kind ofwork is found very frequently in the work in trigonometryand analytical geometry in our colleges and technicalschools, and is characteristic of the work done in algebra inthe secondary schools. But it affects the geometry just asmuch. Take the various text-books on the subject, and wewill find that those written along heuristic lines sin in thisrespect just as much as others. Some are merely a collection of theorems, without any hints or suggestions, and theseare harmless and also valueless. Others contain suggestions and hints, but in nearly every case these suggestionsare strictly perfunctory and routine in character, and wouldlead to a routine knowledge of geometry.It seems, therefore, that, under present conditions, themethod is not capable of general practical application. Anideal teacher, having a small class in geometry, would probably make a success of it ; but this is a combination notoften met. Every teacher of mathematics, however, shouldbe ready to use the method as occasion demands. Whenand where to do so is a question which cannot be laid downby rule. A teacher must know this intuitively, and so onewill use it to a less extent and another to a greater, according to the individuality of each and the exigencies of thecase. As an example, a large number of the concepts andtheorems of plane geometry can be generalized to space,and whenever this is done it should be by the heuristicmethod. Such an application might hasten the day whenwe no longer are expected to teach so much plane geometryUNIVERSITY RECORD 241and so much solid geometry, but when we shall teach ourboys and girls some true geometry. The intuitional geometry, or form-study, of the grades should of course be taughtby the heuristic method. Here we are, namely, not dealingwith formal geometry, but aim to develop in the childrenthe geometrical intuition or imagination by means of theconcrete object.Following the papers was an animated discussion for nearly an hour, participated in by W. A.Clark, University of Chicago ; C. L. Herron, Chicago Manual Training School; Mrs. FrancesTemple, South Division High School; E. E.Hill, Hyde Park High School; Stephen A.Emery, Lewis Institute ; J. H. Boyd, Universityof Chicago; J. M. Elliott, North Division HighSchool ; Julia Bulkley, University of Chicago ;H. L. Coar, University of Illinois ; Superintendent L. D. Harvey, H. E. Slaught, chairman of theconference, and others.There was testimony presented as to the successful results of heuristic teaching, and also difficulties arising out of practical experience. Greatinterest was shown in the statements of Superintendent Harvey concerning his marked success inusing this method. Also much useful discussionwas aroused by Mr. Coar's reference to routinework in teaching geometry or algebra or any•other subject in mathematics. In fact, so greatimportance was attached to this phase of thequestion that the conference voted to make itthe topic for the next annual conference.REPORTS OF ACTIONS OF UNIVERSITY RULING BODIES,FOR NOVEMBER 1899.1. The Board of the University Press :Meeting of November 18. — H. C. Biddle andW. E. Garrison given permission to publish theirDoctorate Theses elsewhere than at the University Press under the usual restrictions.2. The Board of Student Organizations, Publicationsand Exhibitions:Meeting of November 18. — i) Committee's report on Oratorical Association received and placed on file. 2) Election of W. J. Schmall as editorof University Weekly approved. 3) Committeeon "public appearances" of students directed toprepare and present to the board a plan and rulesfor the management and conduct of "publicappearances " of students.3. The Board of University Affiliations :Meeting of November 10. — [See p. 215.]4. The Board of Libraries, Laboratories, and Museums :Meeting of November 25 . — 1) Following reportof committee on classes meeting in library roomsadopted :The committee recommends 1) That the Dean berequested to arrange the time schedule with a view to removing classes as far as possible from the Libraries of theDepartments of History and Political Economy. 2) Thatthe Department of Geology be requested to present to theLibrary Board a plan which will remove classes from theLibraries in the building.2) Following report of committee on groupingof departmental libraries adopted and recommended to proper authorities :1. That for want of space it will be impossible to regroup the Libraries of Group 2 (Political Economy, PoliticalScience, History, and Sociology).2. That the committee recommends that : a) Libraries ofGroup 3 (Romance, German, English) be grouped and theLibraries moved as per original report, b) Directions tothat effect shall be sent to the proper authorities, so that thechanges can be made during the Christmas recess, c) TheTrustees be asked to provide help as soon as possible forreclassifying and arranging books in this group, d) ThePresident be urged to consult the Heads of these Departments and appoint a Library Adviser at once, so that thetransfer may be arranged before the opening of the quarter.The committee also presented the following query:Should not the Classical Group be organized under the rulesof the board with a single Adviser, catalogue, etc. ?3) Report of Committee on Binding of bookswas adopted in following form :The committee recommends: 1) That the duty of preparing the original orders for binding be assigned to theGeneral Library instead of to the departments, as now.Suggestions for binding may originate either with the department or with the General Library. It shall be the duty ofthe General Library to prepare such orders for all unbound242 UNIVERSITY RECORDbooks and completed volumes of periodicals, as well as forall other books needing re-binding. 2) That these ordersbe approved by the head of the department for which thebinding is to be done, or by the Library Adviser actingon the authorization of the head of the department. 3)That the binding orders be made on library cards, onecard for each title, after the form hereto attached. Thisform to take the place of the order sheets hitherto employed. 4) That the cost of binding be charged to the bookfund of the department which orders the binding, as atpresent. 5) That the substance of the above action, whenapproved by this board, be printed in the UniversityRecord, together with an abridged form of the accompanying statement x concerning materials, styles of binding, etc. ,and be sent to the heads of departments and to LibraryAdvisers for their information.4) Committee on a list of publications of interest to more than one department and the purchase of the same by the University, reported asfollows :The committee submits two lists. The shorter list representing publications most urgently needed, and the longerlist representing publications desired by several departments, and additional to the first list.The committee urges the early purchase of both lists ofpublications, especially in view of the fact that with therapid establishment of libraries in this country the publications in question are becoming scarce and dear.The committee recommends also that fifty dollars beadded to the annual appropriation of the General Library tocover cost of subscription to these periodicals in the future.The report was adopted, and in accordancewith its recommendation the following action wastaken : That the board recommend to the Boardof Trustees the appropriation of a sum sufficientto purchase the smaller list, with the understanding that this sum shall not be deducted from thepresent appropriation.5. The Board of Physical Culture and Athletics :Meeting of November 4. — 1) Committee onovercrowding in women's gymnasium reported.Meeting of November 4. — 1) Price of tickets forThanksgiving Day football game regulated. 2)On and after January 1, 1900, no unclassified stu-1 This will be printed in a later number of the UniversityRecord. dent is permitted to represent the University inany athletic contest during the first quarter of hisresidence.Meeting of November ij. — 1) The football teamis given permission to play this year after Thanksgiving.Meeting of November 25. — 1 ) Ratification of acontract, signed by the authorities of the University of Wisconsin, for athletic games with theUniversity of Wisconsin under specified conditions.6. The Faculty of the Junior Colleges :Meeting of November 4. — 1) Committee onCurriculum reported on action of. Faculty of Og-den School of Science "that drawing should berecognized as an entrance subject on its ownbasis " as follows :Resolved, That, inasmuch as so important a matter as thiscannot be decided off hand, it is desirable that more specificinformation upon certain points be secured and submitted,e. g., a) the number of hours required for an entrance unitshould be suggested ; b) the kind of drawing, i. e., mechanical, freehand, decorative, etc. should be more definitelyspecified ; c) the possibility of adopting fairly definite standards of attainment and applying examination tests should beconsidered and reported upon.The report was adopted and forwarded to theFaculty of the Ogden School. 2) The followingstudents were admitted with advanced standing :J. H. Anderson, Charlotte Barton, P. Davis, H.E. Fleming, Elma H. Greger, J. T. Haller, SarahJ. Harper, P. G. W. Keller, E. W. Kohlsaat, Florence D. Miller, C. I. Neptune, C. L. Paden, A. L.Patch, W. G. Sackett, Georgiania L. Starr, NellieWilliams. 3) The recommendation of the Committee on Certificates that the absences of a student who has been out of residence for ninemonths be outlawed was adopted. 4) The Deanwas requested to gain further information concerning the petition of the Junior College Councilfor a Board of Appeal.7. The Faculty of the Senior Colleges :Meeting of November 25. — 1) Committee onCurriculum presented the following report :UNIVERSITY RECORD 243There is at present a strong tendency in the best medicalschools to confine the instruction of the first two years largelyto courses in pure science.Such courses may properly be accepted for credit towardsthe Bachelor's degree.In view of these considerations, as soon as Rush Medica 1College shall provide instruction in pure science, which inamount and kind shall be approved by this Faculty, it isrecommended thata) Senior College students in the Colleges of Arts andLiterature, who have completed nine Majors of SeniorCollege work, including the required courses, be allowed topresent as the nine remaining Majors the first year's work inmedicine, to be taken in the University or in Rush MedicalCollege, or jointly in the two institutions.b) Senior College students in the College of Science, whohave completed twelve Majors of Senior College work,including the required courses, and who have sufficient preparation, by virtue of having taken at the University the equivalent of the first year's work in medicine, be permitted topresent as the six remaining Majors the second year's workin medicine, to be taken in the University, or in Rush Medical College, or jointly in the two institutions.It is further recommended that for the years 1 899-1 901Senior College students in the Colleges of Arts, Literature,and Science, who have completed nine Majors of SeniorCollege work be allowed to present as the remaining nineMajors the first two years' work in medicine, taken in RushMedical College.It is understood that no requirement of the Universityfrom candidates for the Bachelor's degree (e. g.t that threequarters of residence at the University) will be affected byany of these regulations.2) The following amendment was adopted :That clause (b) be made effective at present in the casesof those students (to be named), who had secured assurancesfrom the deans of Rush Medical College or from our owndeans, that they would obtain the S. B. and M. D. degreesin six years.The amended report was adopted. 3) Thefollowing motion was adopted and referred tothe Faculty of the Junior Colleges :That the Faculty of the Senior Colleges recommend tothe Faculty of the Junior Colleges that students in theCollege of Science who wish to take the pre-medical coursebe allowed to substitute Physics or Chemistry for the twoMajors of required Geology.4) The following students were admitted withadvanced standing : F. B. Carson, L. Rebecca Corwin, Alice J. Harrigan, G. N. Libby, LuraM. Love, M. Schloss, A. V. Snell, A. H. Sutherland.8. The Faculty of the Ogden (Graduate) School ofScience :Meeting of November 18. — 1 ) Subjects for theconsideration of the Faculty in joint session withthe Graduate Faculty of Arts and Literaturepresented, and committees appointed to preparereports for the joint session.2) Communication from Faculty of Junior Colleges (see above 6, 1) received, and reply madethat " the details of the introduction of a non-scientific subject as an entrance subject do notcome within the jurisdiction of this Faculty."9. The Faculty of the Graduate Schools of Arts andLiterature :Meeting of November 25. — 1) The followingpersons were admitted as candidates for higherdegrees : (a) for the degree of S. M., James D.Bradwell, Henry R. Corbett ; (b) for the degree ofPh.D., W. F. Tibbetts, John J. Meyer. 2) Pastwork of Ella F. Young accepted as an equivalentfor the Bachelor's degree. 3) Meetings in jointsession with Faculty of Ogden School for consideration of certain special subjects approved.10. The University Council :Meeting of November 23. — 1) Petition ofJunior College Council for a holiday on December 1 refused, the Dean being requested to makefull explanation of the grounds. 2) A plan forchanges in the time of public exercises, etc., wasrecommended to the Board of Trustees. 3) Inresponse to a communication of the Congregationconcerning the registration system the followingaction was taken :1. That registration for two quarters in advance be madeoptional for Unclassified, Senior College, and Graduatestudents.2. That registration for elective courses in the secondquarter may be changed by Junior College students withoutfee on the approval of the Dean.244 UNIVERSITY RECORD11. The University Senate :Meeting of November 18. — i) Action on thebasis of which a committee was appointed toformulate alternatives for the Latin of the S. B.course in the Junior Colleges reconsidered. 2)The Faculty of the Ogden (Graduate) Schoolrequested to express its opinion on questionsrelating to the subject of the Latin of the S. B.course, which the Senate should submit to it. 3)A committee appointed to receive and formulatesuch questions for transmission to the Faculty ofthe Ogden School with this request.12. The University Congregation :For the report of the meeting of November 17,see the University Record of November 24.13. The Board of Trustees :Meeting of November 7. — 1) The action ofthe Board of the Theological Union appointing Professor Shailer Mathews Junior Dean ofthe Divinity School from July 1, 1899, was approved and ratified. 2) F. B. Jewett was appointed to a Laboratory Assistantship in Physicsfor the current year. 3) H. O. Murfee was appointed to a Research Assistantship in Physicsfor the current year. 4) Dr. Adolph Bernhardwas appointed to an Assistantship in Chemistryto succeed H. N. McCoy, resigned. 5) S. C.Reese was appointed to a Volunteer Research Assistantship at the Observatory for the Autumnand Winter Quarters. 6) W. K. Clemens wasappointed to an Assistantship in the ClassicalLibrary for the year beginning October 1, 1899.7) Dr. Irving Hardesty was appointed to an Assistantship in the Department of Neurology. 8)It was voted that each library advisor who represents a library made up of three or four groupsbe appointed ex officio a member of the Board ofLibraries, Laboratories, and Museums, and thatthe wording of the statutes be changed accordingly.Meeting of November 21. — 1) The Presidentpresented the resignation of A. W. Stratton,Associate in Sanskrit, and it was accepted to take effect December 1, 1899, Mr. Stratton having become Registrar of the Punjab University, Lahore,India, and President of its Oriental College. 2)Associate Professor S. W. Stratton, on the recommendation of the President, was given permissionto accept a government position at Washington,in the Department of Weights and Measures ; itbeing understood that his duties in such appointment shall not interfere with his work in theUniversity.THE ALUMNI.NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS.NOTICES.In the next monthly issue of the Record willappear the article on "The Student Paper inthe Old University," by Frank A. Helmer, '78,president of the association.ALUMNI CLUB RALLY.On Thursday evening, November 23, a rally,under the auspices of the Chicago Alumni Club,was held at Rosalie Hall, in honor of the verysuccessful football team of '99. An invitationwas extended to all the men in the University, aswell as to the Alumni. It was the most successful and enthusiastic meeting of the student bodyin the history of the University. Speeches weremade by President Harper, Dr. T. W. Goodspeed,Professor Small, Assistant Professor Vincent,Associate Professor Stagg, Coaches Gale andHerschberger, and each member of the team.Mr. Capron, of Providence, Rhode Island, U. S.Representative for that district, spoke for theBrown team and his alma mater. The University Band and the University Glee Club furnishedthe music. William Scott Bond, '97, presidentof the Chicago Alumni Club, presided. Thestriking evidence of a rapidly growing collegespirit was a source of pleasure to every alumnus.THE INDIANAPOLIS UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CLUB.Through the efforts of John Lamay, '95, andothers, a strong University of Chicago Club hasbeen formed- in Indianapolis, including alumniUNIVERSITY RECORD 245and non-graduates of the University. The following is the report of the secretary of the club :" The Indianapolis University of Chicago Club,held its first annual meeting and banquet at theDenison Hotel, Saturday evening, November 25.Fifty members and seventeen guests were present.Professor Harry Pratt Judson was the guest ofhonor. Edward S. Ames, Ph.D., '95, professor inthe University of Indianapolis, was toast-master.The speakers of the evening were Miss CharityDve, on " The Summer School ; " Henry A.Palmer, on "The Undergraduate ; "John Lamay,'05, on "The Alumni;" and Professor Judson,on "The University." In the business meetinga constitution and by-laws were adopted, and thefollowing officers elected : President, ProfessorE. W. Abbott, of the University of Indianapolis ;Vice President, Miss Emma Donnan ; Secretary,John Lamay, '95 ; Treasurer, Henry A. Palmer;Executive Committee : Professor J. D. Forrest,Miss Lydia Brown ; Membership Committee :Miss Beatrice Foy, Miss Charity Dye. The clubat present numbers fifty-three members, and thebeginning promises growth, enthusiasm, andefficiency.PERSONAL ITEMS.Vladyslaus Zarzembski, '97, is a translator inthe War Department at Washington, D. C.Florence Rachael Jones, '99, has accepted aposition as tutor in an American family in LaCalifornia Las Rosas, Argentine Republic, SouthAmerica.The following is taken from the Jeffersonian ofStanton College, Washington, Miss.:"Miss Torrance, the classical teacher, is an A.B. of theChicago University, and is with Stanton College for her firstsession. She is possessed of the highest qualifications, andhas had six years' experience as teacher. Stanton's aim isto place her classical department foremost among the youngwomen's colleges of the South. With Miss Torrance at thehead of the work the aim will surely be realized.Miss Catharine Torrance took her degree in '98.In the list which appeared in the UniversityRecord of November 10, giving the names of alumni who are officers of instruction in the University, the name of Charles W. Seidenadel, Ph.D.,'97, was accidentally omitted.Rev. John Hulshart, '96, of Farmingdale, N. J.,has accepted a position under the Baptist HomeMission Society as instructor of Theology inBishop College, Marshall, Texas.Edwin G. Cooley, '95, Principal of LyonsTownship High School, has been elected to theprincipalship of the Chicago Normal School,the position formerly held by Colonel Parker.A brief note in the Standard of last weekannounced the death of Thomas W. Hyde, '61, ashipbuilder of Bath, Maine. Mr. Hyde was oneof the two graduates from the first class of theold University, Mr. Charles Scammon, deceased,being the other. Mr. Hyde expected to be hereat the last convocation to receive the reenacteddegree of the new University, but was preventedby illness. For the first time in the history ofthe University the degree was reenacted withoutthe presence of the candidate. The death of Mr.Hyde leaves no representative of the oldest classin the association.F. W. Smedley, B.S., '98, and Dr. D. P. MacMil-lan, Ph.D., '99, of the newly created Child-StudyDepartment of the Chicago Public Schools, bothreceived their training for this work under thecare of the Department of Philosophy and Pedagogy at the University.OFFICIAL NOTICES.registration.Registration for the Winter and SpringQuarters will begin as follows :[Registration for the Spring Quarter is optional for the Unclassified, Senior College, andGraduate Students.]Divinity Students, in the Office of the Dean ofthe Divinity School, Room 15, Haskell Museum.Dean Hulbert, Friday, December 8, and Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, December 12,13, 14, and 15, 11:00-12:00.246 UNIVERSITY RECORDDean Mathews, Friday, December 8, and Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, December 12, 13, 14, and 15, 12:00-1:00.Graduate Students, in the Office of the Deansof the Graduate Schools, Room 14, Haskell Museum.Dean Judson, Friday, December 8, 10:30-12:00 and 2:00-4:00; Monday, December n,10:00-12:00 and 2:00-4:00.Dean Salisbury, Friday, December 8, 1 1 : 00-12 : 30, and on the remaining days of registrationn : 30-12 : 30.Senior College Students in the Office of theDean of the Senior Colleges, Room 13, HaskellMuseum, Monday, December 11, 10:00-12:00,and 1 : 30-3 : 30 ; Tuesday, December 12, 10 : 00-1 1*: 00 and 1 : 30-4 : 30.Junior College Students in room A6, Cobb Hall,Tuesday, December 12, 9 : 30-12 : 30 and 3 : 00-4 : 00 ; Wednesday, December 13, 9 : 30-12 : 30and 3 : 00-5 : 00.Unclassified Students, in the offices of theDeans of Unclassified Students, Cobb Hall,Thursday, December 14, 9 : 30-11 : 00.All women students will register with DeanTalbot for Physical Culture, in Cobb Hall, A9,Wednesday, December 13, 12 : 00-1 : 00 ; Thursday, December 14, Room A6, Cobb Hall, 9 : 00-1 : 00 and 2 : 00-4 : 00.Friday, December 15, Room A6, Cobb Hall,9 : 00-1 1 : 00, 1 2 : 00-1 : 00, and 2 : 00-4 : 00.QUARTERLY EXAMINATIONS.The examinations at the close of the AutumnQuarter will be held on Wednesday, Thursday,and Friday, December 20, 21, and 22. Examinations for morning classes will be held on threesuccessive mornings ; for afternoon classes onthree successive afternoons, as follows :8:30 Exercises, Wedn., Dec. 20, 8:30-11:30 a.m.9:30 a Thurs. ' 21, 8:30-11:30 A.M.11:00 a Fri. 22, 8:30-11:30 A.M.12:00 it Wedn. < 20, 2:00- 5:00 P.M.2:00 a Thurs. < 21, 2:00- 5:00 P.M.3:00 a Fri. 22, 2:00- 5:00 P.M. FINAL EXAMINATIONS FOR HIGHER DEGREES.AUTUMN QUARTER 1899.Final Examinations for the degree of Ph.D.will be held as follows :Henry Martyn Herrick. Friday, December 23, 2 : 00p.m., Room 23, Haskell. Subjects: I, New Testament; II, OldTestament and Sociology. Thesis: "The Kingdom ofGod in Patristic Literature." Committee: ProfessorsBurton, Mathews, W. R. Harper, Small, Hirsch, Goodspeed,and Henderson ; Associate Professors Price and R. F. Harper ; Assistant Professor Vincent ; Doctors Votaw and Wil-lett, and all other members of the departments immediatelyconcerned.Hermann Benjamtn Almstedt. Friday, December 15,3:00 p.m., C 10 d. Subjects : I, German; II, English Language. Thesis : '• Das mittelniederdeutsche Laiendoctrinal."Committee : Associate Professor Cutting, Professor Manly,Dr. Pietsch, and all other members of the departments immediately concerned.Forrest Ray Moulton. Friday, December 15, 2: 00 p.m,Room 35, Ryerson Laboratory. Subjects: I, Astronomy;II, Mathematics. Thesis; A Particular Class of PeriodicSolutions of the Problem of Three Bodies." Committee :Professors G. E. Hale, E. H. Moore, Michelson, and all othermembers of the departments immediately concerned.Final Examinations for the Degree of D.B.will be held as follows :Errett Gates. Wednesday, December 6, 4:00 p.m., Room36, Haskell. Subjects : I, Church History; II, New Testament. Thesis : " The Contest for Religious Liberty in Massachusetts." Committee : Professors Hulbert, lohnson,Moncrief, Burton, and Mathews, and all other instructors inthe departments immediately concerned.Friend T. Dye. Thursday, December 7, 4:00 p.m., Room36, Haskell. Subjects : I, Church History ; II, New Testament. Thesis : " Religious Liberty in the Netherlands."Committee : Professors Hulbert, lohnson, Moncrief, Burton,and Mathews, and all other instructors in the departmentsimmediately concerned.Julian Emmet Yates. Wednesday, December 13, 4:00p.m., Room 36, Haskell. Subjects : I, Church History ; II>Homiletics. Thesis : " The Inductive Methods of Leonardoda Vinci." Committee : Professors Hulbert, Johnson, Moncrief, Anderson, and Foster, and all other instructors in thedepartments immediately concerned.Richard Beauchamp Marshall. Thursday, Decern.ber 14, 4:00 p.m., Room 36, Haskell. Subjects: I, ChurchHistory; II, Homiletics. Thesis: "The Philosophy of His-UNIVERSITY RECORD 247tory as Developed by Augustine." Committee : ProfessorsHulbert, Johnson, Moncrief, Anderson, and Foster, and allother instructors in the departments immediately concerned-Frank Leonard Anderson. Wednesday, December14, at 4:00 p.m., in Room 28, Haskell. Principal subject, New Testament ; secondary subject, Theology. Thesis :" The Fatherhood of God." Committee : Professors Burton,Mathews, Northrup, Foster, and Dr. Votaw, and all otherinstructors in the departments immediately concerned.THE FACULTIES.Professor John M. Coulter, who is spending hisvacation at The Savoy, Washington, D. C, willshortly publish Plant Structures, a. book for secondary schools and colleges, this following hisother recent publication, entitled Plant Relations.Professor Coulter has just completed Synopsis ofMexican and Central American Umbelliferae, nowin the hands of the government printer. Heexpects a revision of North American Umbelliferae,a large volume, to be published by the Smithsonian Institution. Before he returns to the university in April, Professor Coulter expects topublish Special Morphology of the Seed Plants, auniversity text-book upon which he has been working for a number of years.Professor T. C. Chamberlin, of the Departmentof Geology, has published recently in The Journal of Geology "An attempt to Frame a WorkingHypothesis of the Cause of Glacial Periods on anAtmospheric Basis, Part I." Professor Chamberlinhas just been appointed a member of the Committee of One Hundred selected by the CivicFederation to study the educational system ofChicago.Professor F. F. Abbott's recently publishedarticles include "The Chronology of Cicero's Correspondence During the Year 59 B. C," TheAmerican Journal of Philology, Volume 19,pages 389-405 ; " Petronius : A Study in AncientRealism," The Sewanee Review, October 1899,pages 435-443- Professor John Dewey is the president of theAmerican Psychological Association for the season of 1 899-1 900. For the same period he hasalso been chosen president of the NorthwesternBranch of the Johns Hopkins University Alumni.Associate Professor Ira M. Price is conductinga class of about forty, including students andinstructors of the Morgan Park Academy, whoare engaged in a study of the kingdom of Israel,from the books of Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, andcontemporaneous literature. Mr. Price has justundertaken the duties of consulting editor of theJewish Encyclopedia, edited by Dr. Isidore Singer,which is to be published in a series of twelvevolumes. Mr. Price addressed the Ministers' Conference of the State of Michigan, at Kalamazoo,October 30 and 31, on "Amos" and "Nahum."He also addressed the Young Men's Club of theFourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago, December 1, illustrating his lecture with the stereopticon,on "Discoveries in the Orient During this Century."Dr. Oscar L. Triggs gave two lectures in Cincinnati, Ohio, November 24 and 25, on "The Industrial Arts," and "Browning's Contribution toLiterature."Dr. Charles J. Chamberlain is the editor of theDepartment of Current Botanical Literature inthe Journal of Applied Microscopy . In this department he reviews books and important articlesbearing on histology, cytology, and the moreminute morphology of plants. He recently contributed to this journal an article on "Methodsin Plant Histology. X."RECENT REVIEWS.Among the books reviewed recently by members of the faculty are :Artesian Wells of Georgia, Georgia GeologicalSociety, by T. C. Chamberlin.Teaching Botanist, Ganong, by C. R. Barnes.248 UNIVERSITY RECORDPlant Relations, John M. Coulter, by C. R.Barnes. /Statistical Methods in Biology, C. B. Davenport,by C. R. Barnes.Primer of Forestry, Pinchott, by C. R. Barnes.History of Bohemian Literature, Lutzow, byOscar L. Triggs.Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable, Crosby, byOscar L. Triggs.The Life of Henry A. Wise, of Virginia, JohnS. Wise, by Francis W. Shepardson.The End of an Era, John S. Wise, by FrancisW. Shepardson.Morphology and Histology of Plants, Rusby andJeliffe, by C. J. Chamberlain. Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms, L. M. Underwood, by C. J. Chamberlain.Fixirung, Farbung, und Bau des Protoplasmas^by C. J. Chamberlain.CURRENT EVENTS,Professor F. M. Warren, of Adelbert College*Cleveland, Ohio, gave two lectures at the University this week. On Thursday, December 7,,Professor Warren spoke upon " The LiteraryInfluence of J. J. Rousseau ; " and on Friday ,,December 8, his subject was "The Influence ofShakespeare on French Drama."The Thirty-first Convocation of XLbC TUnfvetSttEOf GbicagO will be held in Studebaker Hall, on TuesdayAfternoon, January second, beginning at three o'clock. TheConvocation Address will be given by Arthur TwiningHadley, LL.D*, the President of Yale University*UNIVERSITY RECORD 249THE CALENDAR.DECEMBER 8-16.Friday, December 8.Chapel-Assembly: The Divinity School. Chapel,Cobb Lecture Hall, 10:30 a.m.Registration of Students in Residence for theWinter and Spring Quarters begins.Physics Club meets in Room 32, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, at 4: 00 p.m.Papers: "The Mechanics of Canal and CathodeRays," by Fritz Reichmann ; " The Solidification ofHydrogen," by N. F. Smith; "The Dispersion ofCathode Rays by Magnetic Force/' by J. O. Hamilton.Public Lecture : Chapel, Cobb Hall, at 4:00 p.m.Professor F. M. Warren, of Adelbert College,Western Reserve University, on " The Influenceof Shakespeare on French Drama."Sunday, December 10.Vesper Service is held in Kent Theater at4:00 P.M.Professor Barnes will make the address.Monday, December 11.Chapel- Assembly : The Junior Colleges. Chapel,Cobb Lecture Hall, 10:30 a.m.Illustrated Public Lecture in CongregationHall, Haskell Museum, at 8:00 p.m, by Dr.Henry Rand Hatfield on "Shipbuilding inAmerica."Registration for the Winter and Spring Quarters.Tuesday, December 12.Chapel-Assembly : The Senior Colleges. Chapel,Cobb Lecture Hall, 10:30 a.m.Botanical Club meets in Room 23, BotanicalLaboratory, at 5:00 p.m.Professor C. R. Barnes will review Corren's book onthe Propagation of Mosses. Mr. B. E. Livingstonwill review a paper by H. T. Brown on the Fixationof Carbon by Plants.Sociology Club meets in Congregation Hall,Haskell Museum, at 8:00 p.m.Mr. Charles J. Bushnell will present a paper on " ThePeriod of Adolescence : a Study in the Developmentof Social Interests between the Ages of 12 and 25."(Illustrated.)Registration for the Winter and Spring Quarters.Wednesday, December 13.Division Lectures : The Upper Seniors, Congregation Hall, Haskell, at 10: 30 a.m.; the Lower Seniors, the Lecture Room, Cobb Hall ; tneUpper Juniors, Room 16, Kent.Zoological Club meets in Room 24, ZoologicalLaboratory, at 4:00 p.m.Mr. M. F. Guyer will read a paper on " Spermatogenesis in Hybrid Pigeons."Registration for the Winter and Spring Quarters.Thursday, December 14.Chapel- Assembly: The Graduate Schools. Chapel,Cobb Lecture Hall, 10:30 a.m.President Henry Wade Rogers, of NorthwesternUniversity, will make the address, on the subject :" Acquisition and Government of Territories."Young Women's Christian Association meetsin Haskell Museum, x\ssociation Hall, at 10:30A.M.Mathematical Club meets in Room 35, RyersonPhysical Laboratory, at 4: 00 p.m.Mr. McDonald : " On the System of a binary cubicand quadratic with an application."Note : " An arithmetical proof that there is an infinityof primes of the form ax-f- 1," by Assistant ProfessorYoung.Registration for the Winter and Spring Quarters.History Club meets at Professor Terry's house,5535 Monroe av., at 8:00 p.m.Friday, December 15.Chapel Assembly : The Divinity School. Chapel,Cobb Lecture Hall, 10: 30 a.m.Registration for the Winter and Spring Quarters.The Senior Finals are held in Kent Theater at8:00 p.m.The Senior College Reception is held at thePresident's House, from 9:00-11:00 p.m.Saturday, December 16.Meetings of University Ruling Bodies in HaskellOriental Museum :The Administrative Board of the UniversityPress, 8:30 a.m.The Administrative Board of Student Organizations, Publications, and Exhibitions, 10: 00 a.m.The Faculty of the Ogden (Graduate) Schoolof Science, 10:00 a.m.The Faculty of the Divinity School, ii: 30a.m.IRew anfc> Tfrnpottant IReporte onpractical Bbucational Uopice^PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONALASSOCIATION AND SOLD BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESSTHE series of special reports dealing with questions of the highest importance in thefield of education, as arranged under the auspices of the National EducationalAssociation, are now for the first time made available. The University of ChicagoPress has arranged to supply these reports at minimum cost, and orders are invited. Inview of the large and increasing demand and the limited supply at hand, it will be desirable to send in orders, especially for quantities, at an early date.THE REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE OPTWELVE ON RURAL SCHOOLSPrices : Single copies, postpaid, 25 cents ; ten or more copies,express prepaid, at 17 cents per copy ; fifty or more copiesby freight at purchaser's expense, per copy, 15 cents.This committee was appointed by the NationalCouncil at the Denver meeting in 1895, and thereport was made at the Milwaukee meeting in 1897.It is a voluminous and well-arranged report, andcomprises the report by the full committee ; specialreports by each of three sub-committees on RuralSchool Maintenance, Rural School Supervision,Rural School Supply of Teachers , and Rural SchoolInstruction and Discipline. It also includes a valuable appendix of nineteen special reports, prominent among which may be mentioned: SomeSociological Factors in Rural Schools; PermanentSchool Funds; The California System ; The County,Township, and District Systems; Transportation ofPupils; Enrichment of Rural School Courses;The Farm as the Center of Interest ; Lists of Booksfor Rural Schools; Extension Work in RuralSchools, etc.While large editions of this report have been distributed, the demand is still as great as for anyreport of the Association yet published.THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTSPrices : Single copies, postpaid, 25 cents ; tenor more copies,express prepaid, at 17 cents per copy ; fifty or more copiesby freight at purchaser's expense, per copy, 15 cents.This committee was appointed by the Departmentsof Secondary and Higher Education at the Denvermeeting in 1895, and the report was made at theLos Angeles meeting in 1899, it being supplementaryto the Report of the Committee of Ten, made in 1893.In addition to the main report, in which the committee was assisted by a large number of eminenteducators as consulting members, the volume includes special reports of great value, viz.: Reportof the Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association on Courses of Latin and Greekin Secondary Schools ; Report of the Committee ofTwelve of the Modern Language Association ofAmerica on Courses of German and French inSecondary Schools; Report of the Committee ofSeven of the American Historical Association onCourses of Historical Study in Secondary Schools ;Report of the Committee of the Chicago Section ofthe American Mathematical Society. Several valuable reports on Science in Secondary Schools on each; Physical Geography, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physics, and a report on Science in the Grades.REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NORMALSCHOOLSPrices: Single copies, postpaid, 15 cents; ten or morecopies, express prepaid, at 12% cents per copy; onehundred or more copies by freight at purchaser's expense, at 10 cents per copy.This committee was appointed by the Departmentof Normal Schools at the Denver meeting in 1895,and the report was made to the National Councilat the Los Angeles meeting in 1899.The report consists of a series of carefully prepared special papers by individual members of thecommittee, which were submitted to the entire committee for modification, and subsequently wereadopted as published, viz.: The Function of theNormal School; Training Schools — A series oftwenty-nine theses on various phases of training-school work, with a discussion of each; Geographical and Historical Variations in Normal Schools —touching spirit and aims; General Questions ofNormal School Administration; Control and Maintenance of Normal Schools, with statistical tables.The Appendix includes the following special reports: Professor Rein's Practice School at Jena;General View of Normal School Work; A TypicalEnglish Training School; A Discussion of Continuous Sessions in Normal Schools.REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE RELATIONS OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES TO PUBLICSCHOOLSPrices: Single copies, postpaid, 15 cents; ten or morecopies, express prepaid, at 12% cents per copy; onehundred or more copies by freight at purchaser's expense, at 10 cents per copy.This committee was appointed by the NationalCouncil at the Washington meeting in 1898, and thereport was made to the National Council, LosAngeles meeting, in 1899.The report comprises fifteen special reports bymembers of the committee and eminent specialistson a variety of topics touching the various relationsof Libraries to Public Schools, as : Reading Lists,with several lists for the different grades ; Librariesin Normal Schools; Libraries in Rural Schools;Improvements in Library Management : CatalogingSmall Libraries; Aids and Guides to Library Work;The Librarian's Spirit and Method; Reports onMethods of Typical Libraries ; School-Room Libraries, etc.Address an orders to the University of Chicago Press, gbicago, IllinoisOUR PRICESSEEM STRANGE"SUITS, $15,00 TO 50,00,"$15.00 SUITSMean staple materials, linings and trimmings bought inenormous quantities for our stores in all the principalcities, thoroughly organized workmanship, and a systemeliminating every unnecessary expense without sacrificing quality.$50.00 SUITSMean newest styles, exclusive weaves and latest voguein trimmings. These cost more, but we buy them cheaperthan most tailors. The most subtle skill in cutting andmaking is employed throughout, sparing no expensewhich will contribute in the slightest degree to thefinished result.Between these extremes we suit everybody.Samples mailed free.Cor. Adams and Clark Sts, CHICAGOTHE ADVENTURESOF A F R E Sby JESSE LTNCH WILLIAMS, author of\"the stolen story and other newspaper stories," etc,This stirring tale of college life is Mr. Williams'sfirst long story, and it has already been pronounced — by the N. Y. Evening Sun — a betterpicture of college life than the same author'sprincetOtt StOdC0 (which is now in the 8th edition.)FULLY ILLUSTRATED FOR SALE EVERYWHERE PRICE $1.25 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK.IfootelH)el jjbrabo... «»ffour blocfte fromUbe mnix>ersitsof Cbicago****i& ©ntbe/IRtowa^JMaisanceBn attractive, comfortableand convenient reei&ence ^ '^ proprietorfor TUntversitE people